A depressão é hoje a doença mental mais comum do mundo, afetando mais de 121 milhões de pessoas. Além disso, estima-se que em aproximadamente uma década ela se torne a 2º doença responsável pela perda prematura de vida entre todas as idades e sexos. Diferentes propostas foram feitas no intuito de se compreender os mecanismos pelos quais essa doença incide, contudo a etiologia dos transtornos depressivos ainda não é totalmente entendida. Existem consideráveis evidências de que a administração perinatal de lipopolissacarídeo (LPS), uma endotoxina bacteriana, promove efeitos persistentes no desenvolvimento e comportamento da prole de camundongos, os quais podem-se manter até a idade adulta. Ainda, esses eventos podem ter implicações evolucionárias ligadas a alterações transgeracionais. Tendo em vista que a ativação do sistema imune pode estar relacionada com os transtornos depressivos, o presente trabalho expos pré-natalmente ao LPS uma geração de camundongos avaliando os efeitos comportamentais dessa exposição em três gerações subsequentes levando-se em consideração os comportamentos depressivos e não depressivos de cada geração avaliada. Para isso camundongos fêmeas, após terem o comportamento selecionado pelo teste de suspensão da cauda (TSC), foram cruzadas com machos de mesmo comportamento recebendo 100g/kg de LPS ou solução salina no 15º dia de prenhez. Após os nascimentos, as gerações subsequentes tiveram o comportamento em questão avaliado pelo TSC, bem como a atividade geral em campo aberto. Além disso, a interação materno-filhote foi avaliada, uma vez que alterações na mesma poderiam contribuir para os efeitos do tratamento com a endotoxina. Ainda, foi-se realizado um desafio com LPS na geração filial 3, na qual o nível de citocinas e a expressão do comportamento doentio foram avaliadas. Os resultados mostraram que (i) a administração do LPS na geração parental não afetou o comportamento depressivo e não depressivo nas três gerações avaliadas, dado que animais com comportamento depressivo tiveram mais filhotes com o mesmo comportamento em todas as gerações. (ii) Foram observadas alterações no comportamento materno da geração parental, possivelmente ligadas a motivação materna desses animais. (iii) Foram encontradas alterações transgeracionais na atividade geral de camundongos machos e fêmeas das gerações filiais 1 e 2. Tais alterações foram mais x expressivas nos machos e, havendo diferenças entre o comportamento. Esses dados apontam que a exposição a endotoxina possui diferentes consequências de acordo com o comportamento e, (iv) os animais da geração filial 3 quando desafiados com a endotoxina apresentaram maior comportamento doentio e maiores níveis de citocinas. Esses dados apontam para um forte componente genético na transmissão do comportamento, além de, uma influencia epigenética na modulação do mesmo. Ainda, foi possível concluir que a inflamação gerada pela administração pré-natal do LPS atua de forma distinta entre os sexos, bem como o histórico comportamental, no caso, o comportamento depressivo e não depressivo estudados nesse trabalho / Depression disorders are to be considered the most common mental illness affecting more than 121 million people worldwide. It is estimated that approximately one decade it becomes the 2nd disease most responsible for premature loss of life of all ages and sexes. Different proposals to understand this disorders have been made in the past years, however its etiology it is still yet fully understood. There is considerable evidence that the administration of lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a bacterial endotoxin, promotes persistent effects on development and behavior of the offspring of mice, which are maintained into adulthood. Still, these events may have evolutionary implications related to transgenerational changes. Given that activation of the immune system may be related to depressive disorders, this study aimed to expose a generation of mice to LPS evaluating the behavioral effects on three subsequent generations taking into account the depressive-like and non depressive-like behaviors assessed on each generation by the tail suspension test (TST). For this, female mice after behavior selected by the tail suspension test (TST) were crossed with males of the same behavior and exposed to 100g/kg of LPS or saline solution on day 15th of pregnancy. After births, the subsequent generations were also evaluated on the TST and in the open field for general activity. In addition, the maternal interaction was also evaluated, since changes on this parameter could contribute to the treatment effects of the endotoxin. Yet, has been performed a challenge with LPS in the generation branch 3, wherein the level of expression of cytokines and sickness behavior were evaluated. The results showed that (i) the administration of LPS in the parental generation did not affect the depressive-like behaviors on the three generations evaluated, since animals with depressive-like and non depressive-like behavior had more offspring with the same behavior in all generations. (ii) Changes were observed in maternal behavior of the parental generation which is possibly related to a change in motivational state of those animals. (iii) Transgenerational alterations were found in the general activity of male and female mice of the filial generation 1 and 2. These changes were more significant in males and differences between depressive-like e non depressive-like behaviors were also observed. Together, these data indicate that the exposure to endotoxin has different consequences according to the animal historical behavior and, xii finally, (iv) the animals of filial generation 3 when challenged with endotoxin had higher sickness behavior and higher levels of cytokines when evaluated in the open field test. These data point to a strong genetic component in the transmission of behavior and, besides, a possible influence of epigenetic mechanism of the same. Furthermore it was possible to concluded that inflammation state created by the prenatal LPS exposure acts differently according to the animal historical behavior, in this case, the depressive-like and non depressive-like behavior studied, and also acting differently according to the sexes

Le LPS est un puissant agent pro-inflammatoire bactérien, dont la partie lipide A est considérée comme le principe actif. Néanmoins, la chaîne O des LPS influence leur agrégation en solution aqueuse. Notre but a été de déterminer le rôle de la chaîne O sur les effets biologiques et physiopathologiques des LPS.Nos travaux, menés selon trois axes stratégiques complémentaires, ont donné lieu aux avancées suivantes :- développement d'un dosage innovant des LPS par LC-MS/MS et d'un ratio d'inactivation des LPS sur la base d'une utilisation combinée dudit dosage et du test LAL. Ce ratio traduit la capacité d'un organisme hôte à inactiver les LPS, notamment par leur transfert aux HDL par la PLTP. Ce ratio pourrait être utile dans l'évaluation des patients à haut risque.- la longueur de la chaîne O module l'inflammation induite par les LPS. Au-delà de leur concentration d'agrégation critique, les LPS forment des agrégats dotés d’une architecture et de propriétés physico-chimiques dépendant de leur chaîne O. Ces deux paramètres déterminent l'activité biologique des LPS et leur métabolisme ;- développement d'un double marquage innovant des LPS confirmant leur voie principale d'élimination : le transport inverse du LPS. Ce travail définit donc les effets physiopathologiques induits par les LPS comme résultant de deux composantes : leur activité biologique et leur métabolisme. Toute stratégie de recherche ou thérapeutique ciblant les LPS, devrait donc prendre en compte leur structure moléculaire, leur agrégabilité et la relation entre ces deux paramètres, déterminants majeurs de l'activité biologique des LPS et de leur métabolisme. / LPS is a potent bacterial pro-inflammatory agent, consisting of hydrophilic, polysaccharide part and of a lipid A which is considered like active moiety. Nevertheless, the O chain of LPS influences their aggregation in aqueous media. Therefore, our goal has been to determine the role of O chain on the LPS biological and physiopathological effects. Our work was organized according to three main axes, and led to the following findings :- development of a new LPS assay by LC-MS/MS. The combination of this new technique with LAL test allowed us to calculate an inactivation ratio which reflects the ability of host organism to inactivate LPS, especially through their transfer to HDL by PLTP. The ratio could be useful in predicting outcome of high risk patients.- the length of O chain modulates LPS-induced inflammation. Above their critical aggregation concentration, LPS form aggregates with an architecture and physiochemical properties dependent on their O chain. Both parameters determine LPS biological activity and their metabolism.- development of an innovative dual labelling of LPS as a new tool to explore LPS elimination pathway : the reverse LPS transport. This work brings evidence that the physiopathological effects of LPS depend on two parameters : their biological activity and their metabolism. Any strategy of research or therapeutic targeting LPS should take into account their molecular structure, their aggregability and the relation between the both parameters, which are major determinants of their biological activity and their metabolism.

Nitric oxide (NO) is an important biological molecule within the body, which over production of this molecule in response to different stimulations can cause various inflammatory diseases. Over production of this molecule is caused by the induction of the inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) enzyme. This enzyme uses L-arginine as a substrate and therefore the presence and transport of this amino acid into the cells can be a key factor in regulating NO over production. Different signalling mechanisms have been implicated in the regulation of this pathway and one of which involves the Mitogen Activated Protein Kinases (MAPK). This family of proteins respond to inflammatory conditions and may mediate effects induced by inflammatory mediators. Of the MAPKs, the role of the c-Jun-N-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway in the induction of iNOS is still controversial. JNK and its downstream target, the transcription factor Activator Protein-1 (AP-1), have shown contradictory effects on iNOS induction leading to controversies over their role in regulating iNOS expression in different cell systems or with various stimuli. The studies described in this thesis have determined the role of JNK/AP-1 on iNOS expression, NO production, L-arginine uptake and also on the transporters responsible for L-arginine transport into the cells. The studies were carried out in two different cell types: rat aortic smooth muscle cells (RASMCs) and J774 macrophages which are both critically associated with the over production of NO in vascular inflammatory disease states. The first approach was to block the expression of the inducible L-arginine-NO pathway using SP600125 and JNK Inhibitor VIII which are both pharmacological inhibitors of JNK. The results from these studies showed that the pharmacological intervention was without effect in RASMCs, but inhibited iNOS, NO and L-arginine transport in J774 macrophages. In contrast, the molecular approach employed using two dominant negative constructs of AP-1 (TAM-67 and a-Fos) revealed a different profile of effects in RASMCs, where a-Fos caused an induction in iNOS and NO while TAM-67 had an inhibitory effect on iNOS, NO, L-arginine transport and CAT-2B mRNA expression. The latter was unaffected in RASMCs but suppressed in J774 macrophages by SP600125. Examination of JNK isoforms expression showed the presence of JNK1 and 2 in both cell systems. Moreover, stimulation with LPS/IFN- or LPS alone resulted in JNK phosphorylation which did not reveal any difference between smooth muscle cells and macrophages. In contrast, expression and activation of AP-1 subunits revealed differences between the two cell systems. Activation of cells with LPS and IFN- (RASMCs) or LPS alone (J774 macrophages) resulted in changes in the activated status of the different AP-1 subunit which was different for the two cell systems. In both cell types c-Jun, JunD and Fra-1 were increased and in macrophages, FosB activity was also enhanced. Inhibition of JNK with SP600125 caused down-regulation in c-Jun in both cell types. Interestingly this down-regulation was in parallel with increases in the subunits JunB, JunD, c-Fos and Fra-1 in RASMCs or JunB and Fra-1 in J774 macrophages. Since, SP600125 was able to exert inhibitory effects in the latter cell type but not in RASMCs, it is possible that the compensatory up-regulation of certain AP-1 subunits in the smooth muscle cells may compensate for c-Jun inhibition thereby preventing suppression of iNOS expression. This notion clearly needs to be confirmed but it is potentially likely that hetero-dimers formed between JunB, JunD, c-Fos and Fra-1 could sustain gene transcription in the absence of c-Jun. The precise dimer required has not been addressed but unlikely to exclusively involve JunB and Fra-1 as these are up-regulated in macrophages but did not sustain iNOS, NO or induced L-arginine transport in the presence of SP600125. To further support the argument above, the dominant negatives caused varied effects on the activation of the different subunits. a-Fos down-regulated c-Jun, c-Fos, FosB, Fra-1 whereas TAM-67 reduced c-Jun and c-Fos but marginally induced Fra-1 activity. Associated with these changes was an up-regulation of iNOS-NO by a-Fos and inhibition by TAM-67. Taken together, the data proposes a complex mechanism(s) that regulate the expression of the inducible L-arginine-NO pathway in different cell systems and the complexity may reflect diverse intracellular changes that may be different in each cell type and not always be apparent using one experimental approach especially where this is pharmacological. Moreover, these findings strongly suggest exercising caution when interpreting pure pharmacological findings in cell-based systems particularly where these are inconsistent or contradictory.

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