This thesis examines three questions concerned with the relative income needs of families of different sizes - often summarised by indices known as ???equivalence scales???. The first is the extent to which researchers and policy makers should offset the costs of family composition (eg the expenditure costs of children) with the benefits associated with demographic choice (eg the ???joys of parenthood???). Chapter 2 concludes that there are demographic and financial market constraints that will often make a narrow focus on expenditure costs appropriate for distributional research and tax/transfer policies. However, this will not always be the case. One implication of this result is that it may be reasonable for distributional research to use different equivalence scales for adults and children in the same household. Part 2 of the thesis introduces a new method for the estimation of the within-household income distribution and expenditure costs of different family types. This is based upon the household welfare model of Samuelson together with Lau???s method for modelling the joint consumption of household goods. In Chapter 4, this method is applied to the estimation of equivalence scales for older singles and married couples. The estimation is based upon a detailed set of assumptions about the extent of joint consumption for 17 different commodity groups. The main conclusions are that: the theoretical model fits the observed behaviour well (with the exception of some home production effects); that aged couples share their income relatively evenly; and that the relative rate of pension for aged singles in Australia is probably too low. In Part 3, the thesis examines how changes in poverty can be estimated when there is uncertainty about the equivalence scale. The thesis proposes a new method which permits a set of upper and lower bounds for the equivalence scale to be assumed, which in turn determine upper and lower bounds for the increase in poverty. This method is applied to measure the change in poverty in Australia during the 1980s. Equivalence scales can be found that imply either an increase or a decrease in poverty.

Poverty is currently wide spread in Georgia. This paper is dedicated to an analysis of the causes, the extent and the intensity of poverty in Georgia. With a strong focus on the period after Shevardnadze’s presidency, the paper shows how poverty has grown in the past 15 years. In spite of a rising per capita income, the variance within the distribution of income is also increasing. The widening gap between high and low incomes represents a danger for the Georgian society and is associated with high unemployment rates, a lack of education for entire societal strata and rising criminality. In addition, high inflation rates affect mainly low income groups. Apparently, the Rose Revolution of 2003 did not lead to an attenuation of poverty but rather intensified it.

Businesses have realised that they cannot appeal to all consumers in the marketplace. Consumers are too numerous, geographically wide-spread, and too varied in their needs and buying practices. Furthermore, the business& themselves vary widely in their abilities to serve different segments of the market. Businesses consequently conduct market segmentation to identify the parts of the market that it can best serve and most profitably. Therefore, the goal of this study was to determine the actual target markets of selected retailers by means of the Living Standards Measure (LSM) tool, and to recommend improved marketing strategies based on the Media Groups Measure (MGM) tool. The objectives of the study were to describe market segmentation by emphasising its importance and discussing the market segmentation process. Further objectives include explaining the application of the LSM- and MGM-tools in identifying target markets and selecting media to reach these target markets, and to conduct an empirical investigation on the application of the LSM tool for the selected retailers. A market segmentation strategy concentrates the business' marketing efforts on consumers who have a similar interest in the business' values. Therefore, market segmentation enables the business to identify consumer needs more accurately. The aforementioned assists the business in creating a basis for developing products to satisfy consumer needs. The basis is developed by the identification of the attributes that are of value to consumers. Market segmentation furthermore assists in the development of an effective marketing mix, tailored to the business' strategy and objectives. A proper marketing mix can determine the promotional appeal, media choices, and the prices consumers are willing to pay. The LSM and MGM are only two of the variety of segmentation tools that can be used to segment a heterogeneous market. The LSM is a relatively new and unknown instrument - in comparison with other segmentation tools - and was specifically developed for the South African market. It is furthermore a multivariate segmentation tool, consisting of 29 household variables, which excludes discriminators such as race and income. The MGM-tool is used to obtain media consumption information on market segments. Its primary function is to assist businesses in selecting media that are most effective in reaching their target markets. The most important conclusions of this study are that the current target markets of Shoprite Checkers and Pick 'n Pay in Potchefstroom differs from their actual target markets. Gender and age do not differentiate shoppers significantly, and although race and income are not included as differentiators in the LSM index, these two variables correlate strongly with the various LSM-groups. Some of the most important recommendations include: The headquarters of both retailers should consider developing differentiated marketing strategies for stores in different locations. Shoprite Checkers and Pick 'n Pay (in Potchefstroom) should both target SU-LSM groups 6 to 10. Both retailers should adapt their marketing efforts in order to provide for the local market in Potchefstroom. The recommendations will enable the retailers to enhance their business and marketing efforts, and accordingly satisfy the needs of their customers. / Thesis (M.Com. (Marketing))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2005.

Businesses have realised that they cannot appeal to all consumers in the marketplace. Consumers are too numerous, geographically wide-spread, and too varied in their needs and buying practices. Furthermore, the business& themselves vary widely in their abilities to serve different segments of the market. Businesses consequently conduct market segmentation to identify the parts of the market that it can best serve and most profitably. Therefore, the goal of this study was to determine the actual target markets of selected retailers by means of the Living Standards Measure (LSM) tool, and to recommend improved marketing strategies based on the Media Groups Measure (MGM) tool. The objectives of the study were to describe market segmentation by emphasising its importance and discussing the market segmentation process. Further objectives include explaining the application of the LSM- and MGM-tools in identifying target markets and selecting media to reach these target markets, and to conduct an empirical investigation on the application of the LSM tool for the selected retailers. A market segmentation strategy concentrates the business' marketing efforts on consumers who have a similar interest in the business' values. Therefore, market segmentation enables the business to identify consumer needs more accurately. The aforementioned assists the business in creating a basis for developing products to satisfy consumer needs. The basis is developed by the identification of the attributes that are of value to consumers. Market segmentation furthermore assists in the development of an effective marketing mix, tailored to the business' strategy and objectives. A proper marketing mix can determine the promotional appeal, media choices, and the prices consumers are willing to pay. The LSM and MGM are only two of the variety of segmentation tools that can be used to segment a heterogeneous market. The LSM is a relatively new and unknown instrument - in comparison with other segmentation tools - and was specifically developed for the South African market. It is furthermore a multivariate segmentation tool, consisting of 29 household variables, which excludes discriminators such as race and income. The MGM-tool is used to obtain media consumption information on market segments. Its primary function is to assist businesses in selecting media that are most effective in reaching their target markets. The most important conclusions of this study are that the current target markets of Shoprite Checkers and Pick 'n Pay in Potchefstroom differs from their actual target markets. Gender and age do not differentiate shoppers significantly, and although race and income are not included as differentiators in the LSM index, these two variables correlate strongly with the various LSM-groups. Some of the most important recommendations include: The headquarters of both retailers should consider developing differentiated marketing strategies for stores in different locations. Shoprite Checkers and Pick 'n Pay (in Potchefstroom) should both target SU-LSM groups 6 to 10. Both retailers should adapt their marketing efforts in order to provide for the local market in Potchefstroom. The recommendations will enable the retailers to enhance their business and marketing efforts, and accordingly satisfy the needs of their customers. / Thesis (M.Com. (Marketing))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2005.

This thesis examines three questions concerned with the relative income needs of families of different sizes - often summarised by indices known as ???equivalence scales???. The first is the extent to which researchers and policy makers should offset the costs of family composition (eg the expenditure costs of children) with the benefits associated with demographic choice (eg the ???joys of parenthood???). Chapter 2 concludes that there are demographic and financial market constraints that will often make a narrow focus on expenditure costs appropriate for distributional research and tax/transfer policies. However, this will not always be the case. One implication of this result is that it may be reasonable for distributional research to use different equivalence scales for adults and children in the same household. Part 2 of the thesis introduces a new method for the estimation of the within-household income distribution and expenditure costs of different family types. This is based upon the household welfare model of Samuelson together with Lau???s method for modelling the joint consumption of household goods. In Chapter 4, this method is applied to the estimation of equivalence scales for older singles and married couples. The estimation is based upon a detailed set of assumptions about the extent of joint consumption for 17 different commodity groups. The main conclusions are that: the theoretical model fits the observed behaviour well (with the exception of some home production effects); that aged couples share their income relatively evenly; and that the relative rate of pension for aged singles in Australia is probably too low. In Part 3, the thesis examines how changes in poverty can be estimated when there is uncertainty about the equivalence scale. The thesis proposes a new method which permits a set of upper and lower bounds for the equivalence scale to be assumed, which in turn determine upper and lower bounds for the increase in poverty. This method is applied to measure the change in poverty in Australia during the 1980s. Equivalence scales can be found that imply either an increase or a decrease in poverty.

Diss. (sammanfattning) Uppsala : Sveriges lantbruksuniversitet, 2005. / Härtill 4 uppsatser.

Esta dissertação tem o objetivo de avaliar os empreendimentos habitacionais verticalizados de interesse social, resultantes dos projetos elaborados pelas assessorias técnicas, contratadas pelos movimentos de moradia, com a parceria dos órgãos públicos responsáveis pela fomentação de habitação popular na Região Metropolitana de São Paulo. São denominados Mutirões Verticalizados. A compreensão histórica e ideológica da verticalização das habitações sociais, da sua inserção e/ou espoliação no espaço da cidade e das políticas de mutirão existentes na Região Metropolitana de São Paulo, pretende subsidiar uma reflexão a cerca dos resultados da ocupação dos projetos que tem como principal característica, o acompanhamento dos futuros moradores em todas as etapas da construção. Através da APO- Avaliação de Pós-Ocupação, aplicada em alguns mutirões verticalizados, localizados em vários pontos da Região Metropolitana de São Paulo, podemos apontar indicadores do desempenho da aferição de satisfação dos usuários, e as principais causas que levam aos mutirantes quererem repassar ou ficarem em sua atual moradia. Essa pesquisa visa contribuir para o aprimoramento de programas de processos de projeto e da produção dos conjuntos habitacionais, na busca de uma melhor qualidade de vida aos moradores desses conjuntos. / The objective of this thesis is the assessment of social interest vertical-housing developments, as a result of projects elaborated by technical consultants, and contracted by housing movements in partnership with public institutions in charge of promoting popular dwellings in the Metropolitan Area of São Paulo City, known as Mutirão Vertical (self-built vertical housing). The historical and ideological understanding of vertical social housing, of its insertion and/or exclusion from public space, and of the self-building policies in Metropolitan São Paulo, intends to provoke reflection about the results in projects occupation, whose main characteristic is the follow-up, in all phases of construction, by the future dwellers. Through the APO Avaliação Pós-Ocupação (post-occupation assessment) carried out in several self-built vertical projects throughout the city of São Paulo, it is possible to indicate and evaluate the users satisfaction, and their main reasons either to remain in the property or to transfer it. The research aims at contributing to the improvement of project development programs, and of the production of social housing, in order to provide its dweller with better living standards.

Objective: To explore consumer attitudes towards generic medication. Methods: A quantitative method was used in this explorative study to assess consumer attitudes towards generic medication. A survey design was utilized. A questionnaire was devised that comprised four sections which assessed attitudes towards generic medication. A Living Standards Measure (LSM) assessed socio-economic status. Convenience sampling resulted in the recruitment of 266 respondents. Statistical analysis of the data included non-parametric (Chi-square and correlation analysis) and parametric statistics (factor analysis, MANOVA and regression analysis). Results: More than half the respondents (54.8%) report preference for original medication over generic medication. A large percentage believes there is a place for generic medication (88.9%). The majority (95%) indicate they would purchase generic medication if it proves to be just as effective as the original product. More respondents (91.2%) trust physician over pharmacist recommendations to purchase generics. More than half the respondents (57.9%) would purchase generic medication if recommended by friends but they trust their family members more (68.6%). The findings indicate that respondents generally hold favourable attitudes towards the efficacy of generic medication despite the fact that slightly more than half prefer original medication. Respondents indicate that pricing and branding influence their attitudes towards generic medication. Chi-square analyses indicated that more men would choose original medication and more women would choose generic medication. Age differences revealed that the older consumer is more likely to choose generic medication. White respondents indicated a preference for generic medication, while Black respondents indicated that they prefer original medication. Middle-class (LSM 5-8) and middle-upper class (LSM 9) respondents prefer generic medication, while upper class (LSM 10) respondents prefer original medication. The correlation analysis found no significant relationship between medical aid status and original or generic medication choice. A principle component factor analysis produced nine factors based on the items in the questionnaire, with only eight factors being subjected to further testing. These eight factors were subjected to a MANOVA and tested against gender and race with no significant differences found between men and women and between Black and White respondents. These eight factors were also subjected to further testing by means of regression analysis where it was found that three of the eight factors were statistically significant. These three factors can be productively explored in future research. Implications: This explorative study focused on consumer attitudes towards generic medication, however, it was identified that the consumer valued their physician’s recommendation for type of medication. For future studies, it would be beneficial to explore medical personnel (physician and pharmacist) attitudes towards generic medication as these individuals play an important role in product choice. Copyright / Dissertation (MA)--University of Pretoria, 2012. / Psychology / unrestricted

I denna studie följer man fem olika personers erfarenheter av att ha flyttat från Nordmakedonien till Sverige för att arbeta. Studiens mål är att ta reda på vilka utmaningar individerna upplevde på den Nordmakedonska arbetsmarknaden samt orsakerna som lett till att individerna valt att lämna sitt hemland i hopp om en bättre framtid i Sverige. Fortsättningsvis så är även målet med studien att ta reda på hur flytten till Sverige har gått, vilka utmaningar de har stött på i det nya landet både socialt och i arbetslivet. Insamlingen av det empiriska materialet gjordes genom semistrukturerade intervjuer med mina fem intervjupersoner. Den metoden ansågs mest anpassad för att få fram ett individperspektiv och för att ge utrymme för individerna att berätta sina erfarenheter ur sitt egna perspektiv. Det empiriska materialet analyserades sedan med hjälp av Framing Theory som syftar på att få fram en definition av problemet ur individens perspektiv, även att se till orsakerna ur individens perspektiv, få fram deras moraliska bedömningar av problemet och orsakerna och till sist se vilka hjälpmedel som föreslås av individerna.  Resultatet av studien visade vissa samband och vissa olikheter bland individerna. Alla individerna beskrev en skillnad på om man arbetade inom den privata eller statliga sektorn på den Nordmakedonska arbetsmarknaden. Den privata sektorn beskrivs som mer rättvis där kompetens är det som avgör dina möjligheter för ett arbete. Medan den statliga sektorn beskrivs som orättvis och präglad av politisk korruption som begränsade möjligheterna framför allt för en av mina respondenter. Däremot är detta något som alla respondenter direkt eller indirekt har erfarenhet av. Andra utmaningar på den Nordmakedonska arbetsmarknaden som nämndes var dåliga arbetsvillkor och rädsla för arbetslöshet. En annan orsak som nämndes av två av respondenterna var helt enkelt att de hade tröttnat på sina yrken och kände att de behövde en förändring. Den absolut främsta orsaken som nämndes av alla respondenterna var viljan att ge sina barn en bättre framtid med friheten att kunna utforska sina intressen och kunna bli vad de vill utan att begränsas av arbetsmarknaden.  Väl i Sverige beskrevs språket som en stor utmaning av flera av respondenterna. Andra utmaningar som lyfts fram är kulturella skillnader. Att lära sig språket beskrivs som en stor hjälp både för att det gett fler möjligheter inom arbetslivet och för att komma in bättre i samhället och kulturen. Stöd från familj och vänner är även något som nämns vara till hjälp för att handskas med utmaningarna. / In this study you will follow five different people's experiences of moving from North Macedonia to Sweden for work. The aim of the study is to find out what challenges the individuals experienced in the North Macedonian labor market as well as the reasons that led the individuals to leave their home country in the hope of a better future in Sweden. Furthermore, the aim of the study is to find out how the move to Sweden went, what challenges they have encountered in the new country both socially and in the working life. The collection of the empirical material was done through semi-structured interviews with my five interviewees. This method was considered most suited as the goal of the study is to  highlight the individual’s perspective and to allow the individuals to tell their experiences. The empirical material was then analyzed with the help of the Framing Theory, which aims to obtain a definition of the problem from the individual's perspective, as well as explaining the causes from the individual's perspective, to obtain their moral judgements of the problem and the causes. Lastly the framing theory wants to find out what remedies are suggested by the individuals. The results of the study showed certain connections and differences among the individuals. All individuals described a difference in if you work in the private or the governmental sector in the North Macedonian labor market. The private sector is described as more fair where competence is what determines your opportunities for a job. While the governmental sector is described as unfair and characterized by political corruption, which limits opportunities especially for one of my respondents. However, this is something that all respondents directly or indirectly have experienced. Other challenges in the North Macedonian labor market mentioned were poor working conditions and fear of unemployment. Another reason mentioned by two of the respondents was simply that they are tired of their jobs and felt that they needed a change. The most common reason mentioned by all the respondents was the desire to give their children a better future with the freedom to explore their interests and become what they want without being limited by the labor market. When arriving to Sweden, the language was described as a major challenge by several of the respondents. Other challenges highlighted are cultural differences. Learning the language is described as a great help. Both when it comes to being given more opportunities in the work life and to feel more a part of the society and culture. Support from family and friends is also something that is mentioned to be helpful when dealing with the challenges.

Previous constructivist research was integrated with a field study to investigate the hypothesis that the subjective perceptions of the current social, security and economic situation of the high and low-income groups in South Africa differ to the extent that they could be said to be living in totally different worlds of phenomenological experience. The data demonstrated clear differences when coded in terms of worldviews along an Optimism-Pessimism Continuum. A number of additional processing phenomena and social dynamics able to influence these perceptions were also identified from an interpretative analysis of the data. The results were explained in terms of the cueing and activation of specific schemata constructed from income-related prior experiences associated with each group and led to the conclusion that income and living conditions could well be factors contributing to the ongoing confrontations between government and impoverished communities. A number of recommendations to improve inter-group relations were included. / Psychology / M.A. (Psychology)