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The primary aim of this research was the development of a typology of respondents based on their "control identity"– i.e., perceived sense of control over themselves, their environment, and aspects of their health, including perceived vulnerability to disease and perceived value of health promotion. Testicular cancer and testicular self examination (TSE) were selected as the disease focus, with the realization that, if successful, the typology could be applied across a variety of diseases. The constructs of "realistic vs. unrealistic control" and "internal vs. external locus of control" provided the theoretical foundation to initially define the control-identity types that were then verified through cluster/segmentation analyses. Testicular cancer rates are rising among 15-54 year old men with the majority of those cases affecting males under the age of 35. Regular screening techniques for the disease, most notably testicular self-examination, are rarely performed among surveyed males. If testicular cancer is caught in its early stages, the survival rate is approximately 95%; however, if diagnosed in later stages, survival rates drop below 50%. The lack of published psychosocial behavioral research in this area has contributed to a general misunderstanding by men of the disease and its preventative/screening measures. If continued, this lack of screening for testicular cancer can only lead to increasing incidence and mortality rates. This exploratory study developed a Control Identity Survey, a 41-item questionnaire soliciting information on perceived vulnerability, value of health promotion, health control beliefs, and intention to perform testicular self-examination (TSE). The survey was administered via in-person and internet data collection methods to 300 men between the ages of 18-35. A principal components factor analysis of the survey’s key control variables (realistic vs. unrealistic illusory control constructs and internal v. external locus of control) defined the underlying structure of the data. The resulting factors were then used to create indices for use in the cluster analysis process. From this cluster analysis, control-identity groups were identified and profiled. Given the control-identity types, perceptual mapping techniques were then applied to model how each type of respondent perceives their vulnerability to testicular cancer, the value of testicular self-examination, and overall health control beliefs. This study equated perceptions with an individuals’ ‘outcome expectancy’, or attitude. The findings confirmed the following: •The hypothesized four-group control-identity typology was verified among men based on the variables of health control beliefs, perceived vulnerability, and perceived value of health promotion. The groups were labeled: 1) Realistic Externals, 2) Realistic Internals, 3) Unrealistic Internals, 4) Unrealistic Externals. •Unrealistic Externals perceive the value of TSE to be significantly lower than other types. •Unrealistic Externals perceived their control over health outcomes to be lower than all other types. •Each control-identity type structures perceptions of health control beliefs, vulnerability, and the value of health promotion similarly in a 3-dimensional perceptual mapping space, but the location of “self” within the concept set differs by control-identity type. •Realistic Internals scored the highest among types on value of health promotion, but not significantly so compared to the other groups, with the exception of the Unrealistic Externals, who least value health promotion. •The two “Realistic” types (Internal & External) scored significantly higher on perceived Vulnerability than did the two "Unrealistic" types (Internal & External), with the "Internals" v. "Externals" not differing significantly. •Unrealistic Internals scored highest on perceived self-efficacy (I-Control), but not significantly higher than Realistic Internals, which appears consistent with the fact that "internals" have a higher sense of health-related self-efficacy than do "externals". •Implications for social marketing and for the development of future behavioral intervention strategies are suggested. The methods used in this research could have wide application across the cancer continuum from primary prevention and screening to treatment and end-of-life decisions. From this research, it is clear that men differ significantly in their “control identity”-- the extent to which they perceive themselves as having an internal v. external and/or realistic vs. unrealistic sense of control over their health. Consistently, the control-types differed on perceptions of their own vulnerability to disease, their perceived value of health promotion, and their individual health control beliefs. The resulting typology appears to have exceptional potential for future research across a variety of health related behaviors and diseases. As well, the typology holds promise as a cost-effective way to tailor evidence-based decision aids for each of the control-identities. Since there is little reported success in promoting sustainable TSE among males, it is suggested that building on the control-identity approach will aid testicular cancer and TSE researchers in developing more effective, tailored messages for their study designs. / Public Health

Yes / Breastfeeding is important to infant health and survival in sub-Saharan Africa. To promote breastfeeding effectively, understanding of psychological factors associated with infant feeding choices is required. This study investigated breastfeeding attitudes and health locus of control (HLoC) in a Nigerian community sample. Men and women (N=400) (71% female; mean age 34.2 years/ range 18–86 years) were recruited through community groups in Nigeria. Self-report survey by questionnaire measured breastfeeding attitudes using the Iowa Infant Feeding Attitude Scale (IIFAS) and health locus of control using the Multidimensional Health Locus of Control Scale (MHLoCs). IIFAS scores (mean=57.7; sd=7.8) became less favourable with increasing age (p=0.02). Men had higher IIFAS scores (mean=58.6; sd=7.6) than women (mean=56.6; sd=8.0) indicating more favourable attitudes toward breastfeeding (p=0.02). Women scored higher than men on external chance HLoC (ECHLoC) (p=0.003) and external powerful others HLoC (EPHLoC) (p=0.02). Increasing age was associated with higher scores on ECHLoC (p<0.01) and EPHLoC (p<0.01). Multiple linear regression analysis was significant (p<0.001) and explained 7.8% of variance in breastfeeding attitude. Lower IIFAS scores, reflecting more negative attitudes to breastfeeding, were associated with higher ECHLoC (p<0.01) and EPOHLoC (p<0.05). Higher IIFAS scores, reflecting more positive attitudes to breastfeeding, were associated with greater IHLoC (p<0.01). Neither age nor gender were associated with IIFAS scores in the final model. This implies a need to explore health locus of control when promoting positive attitudes to breastfeeding and supporting families in breastfeeding advocacy.

The differential effectiveness of two types of adjunct embedded questions in facilitating deep processing, increased knowledge gain, and increased positive attitude change was examined in this two-session laboratory study. In session one, subjects completed a measure of locus of control (LOC) orientation, as well as measures of pretest knowledge and attitudes regarding drinking. Two weeks later, stratified assignment was used to place 33 subjects (ages 12 to 15) in one of the three levels of question condition (no questions, factual questions, and inference questions) to study a computer-based instructional program about alcohol education during the second session. Subjects assigned to either of the two embedded question conditions were asked to answer ten questions embedded between segments of interactive video. Depending on question condition, subjects were asked to provide factual information or draw inferences and conclusions regarding the previous video segment. After each question, subjects were asked to rate the amount of effort required to answer the preceding question. Control group subjects viewed interactive video without embedded questions or effort rating scales. Reaction-time trials were distributed throughout the multimedia program and were received by all subjects to establish a baseline reaction-time measure. Immediately following the instructional program, subjects completed posttest measures of knowledge and attitudes regarding alcohol. Results provided limited support for the hypothesis that embedded questions would facilitate positive attitude change; however, embedded questions did not appear to facilitate knowledge gain. Results also provided support for the hypothesis that subjects with internal LOC orientations would be associated with greater positive changes in knowledge gain. Other hypotheses related to depth of processing were not supported by the results of this study. No differences were observed between embedded question types on the reaction-time and mental effort rating measures of depth of processing. Furthermore, no differences were observed across LOC orientation on either of the depth of processing measures. A number of methodological issues are thought to have contributed to this limited support of the hypotheses in this study. These issues, and their potential impact and solutions are discussed with respect to future research. / Ph. D.

Cooperative education research suggests that co-op participation results in enhanced career maturity, yet little is known about the vocational behavior constructs that may produce these results. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between co-op work experience and career decision-making self-efficacy, an individual's confidence to successfully perform various career decision-making tasks. Another purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that only the co-op work experience group adheres to an internal career locus of control, a belief that one can control career outcomes by exercising effort. Based on social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986), it was hypothesized that co-op work experience would provide the greatest exposure to sources of self-efficacy information, namely performance accomplishments, vicarious learning (i.e, exposure to role models or mentors), and verbal persuasion (encouragement). Thus, college students having co-op work experience were expected to report significantly higher career decision-making self-efficacy (CDMSE) compared to college students having non-co-op work experience. Survey data were collected from 415 engineering and computer science students, sophomores through seniors, who had acquired co-op work experience or non-co-op work experience (both related and unrelated to the student's field of study or career interests). There was a 69.75% survey return rate in this (3 x 3) ex-post facto design study. One-Way ANOVAs revealed that CDMSE was significantly higher in the co-op work experience group than in the non-co-op (unrelated) work experience group at the completion of the second work term only. Also, CDMSE in the first work term was significantly higher than the second work term in the non-co-op (unrelated) work experience group. No evidence was found to support a significant cumulative effect in CDMSE. A Two-Way ANOVA revealed no significant interaction effect; however, the main effect of type of work experience was significant (p = .049) for CDMSE. No significant difference was found in the proportion of internal career locus of control between the co-op and non-co-op group. This study's findings did not support prior investigations that found a relationship between engagement in career exploration activities and an internal career locus of control. One-Way ANOVAs revealed a distinct pattern of significance among groups on work experience satisfaction, regardless of the work term completed. Though the co-op group and non-co-op (related) work experience group were comparable on work experience satisfaction, the non-co-op (unrelated) work experience group reported significantly lower work satisfaction from the single most significant work experience acquired during the college years. Survey feedback indicated that co-op students were well pleased with the opportunity to reality-test their career goals in the cooperative education program. Implications of the findings are discussed, and suggestions for future co-op research are provided. / Ph. D.

Realistic scenarios were evaluated to determine whether participants would make ethical/ unethical decisions in the face of various dilemmas. 3 factors were systematically varied throughout 32 different scenarios: accountability, deception, and profitability. A personality variable, locus of control was also explored for its relationship to ethical decision making. Subjects were 25 managers from a national car rental company as well as 21 undergraduate students. In a policy-capturing analysis of the ethical reasoning process., we found neither managers nor students used consistent policies in their decision making. Regression analyses revealed that locus of control orientation did not influence number of ethical decisions made. Implications for the study of ethical decision making are discussed. / Master of Science

Past research has highlighted the negative effects of abusive supervision on employees’ performance. This study seeks to investigate how immediate manager’s abusive behavior affects employee performance. Specifically, drawing upon social exchange theory, conservation of resources theory and LMX theory, this research develops a theoretical model that illustrates how abusive supervision negatively affects employees’ innovative behavior, through climate for innovation in an organization and LMX quality. For these relationships, we propose dyad tenure, gender dissimilarity, perceived organizational support, coworker support and locus of control as first stage moderators and psychological empowerment and psychological security as second stage moderators.To test the proposed model, data was collected from fulltime US employees who have regular interactions with their immediate manager. A two-time survey was distributed to participants through Prolific platform. The hypotheses that were tested include the negative relationship between abusive supervision and employee innovative behavior, the mediating role of Leader-Member exchange (LMX) quality and climate for innovation, and the direct effect of abusive supervision on the mediating variables and moderating effect of psychological security were supported. Possible implications, future research and practical contributions are discussed.

Forty-three college athletes participated (male basketball players, n=13; female basketball players, n=11; male swimmers, n=9; female swimmers, n=10). Two administrations of four self-report questionnaires were completed. Psychological traits of locus of control and self-monitoring were compared to perceptions of body image and predisposition to eating disorders. Measurements used were Rotter Internal-External Locus of Control Scale, Self-Monitoring Scale, Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire, and the Eating Disorder Inventory-2. Males tended to have lower drive for thinness linked with lower fat anxiety as compared to females. Females associated body dissatisfaction with perception of weight. In females, self-monitoring was correlated with feelings of physical attractiveness. Findings support previous literature proposing that women attach negative feelings to the body in relation to an cultural thin ideal. Reliability estimates lacked significance in general. This suggests that the measurements used are not predictive for these subgroups. / Master of Science