Cellular function and physiology are largely established through regulated gene expression. The first step in gene expression, transcription of the genomic DNA into RNA, is a process that is highly aligned at the levels of initiation, elongation and termination. In eukaryotes, protein-coding genes are exclusively transcribed by RNA polymerase II (Pol II). Upon transcription of the first 15-20 nucleotides (nt), the emerging nascent RNA 5’ end is modified with a 7-methylguanosyl cap. This is one of several RNA modifications and processing steps that take place during transcription, i.e. co-transcriptionally. For example, protein-coding sequences (exons) are often disrupted by non-coding sequences (introns) that are removed by RNA splicing. The two transesterification reactions required for RNA splicing are catalyzed through the action of a large macromolecular machine, the spliceosome. Several non-coding small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs) and proteins form functional spliceosomal subcomplexes, termed snRNPs. Sequentially with intron synthesis different snRNPs recognize sequence elements within introns, first the 5’ splice site (5‘ SS) at the intron start, then the branchpoint and at the end the 3’ splice site (3‘ SS). Multiple conformational changes and concerted assembly steps lead to formation of the active spliceosome, cleavage of the exon-intron junction, intron lariat formation and finally exon-exon ligation with cleavage of the 3’ intron-exon junction. Estimates on pre-mRNA splicing duration range from 15 sec to several minutes or, in terms of distance relative to the 3‘ SS, the earliest detected splicing events were 500 nt downstream of the 3‘ SS. However, the use of indirect assays, model genes and transcription induction/blocking leave the question of when pre-mRNA splicing of endogenous transcripts occurs unanswered. In recent years, global studies concluded that the majority of introns are removed during the course of transcription. In principal, co-transcriptional splicing reduces the need for post-transcriptional processing of the pre-mRNA. This could allow for quicker transcriptional responses to stimuli and optimal coordination between the different steps. In order to gain insight into how pre-mRNA splicing might be functionally linked to transcription, I wanted to determine when co-transcriptional splicing occurs, how transcripts with multiple introns are spliced and if and how the transcription termination process is influenced by pre-mRNA splicing. I chose two yeast species, S. cerevisiae and S. pombe, to study co-transcriptional splicing. Small genomes, short genes and introns, but very different number of intron-containing genes and multi-intron genes in S. pombe, made the combination of both model organisms a promising system to study by next-generation sequencing and to learn about co-transcriptional splicing in a broad context with applicability to other species. I used nascent RNA-Seq to characterize co-transcriptional splicing in S. pombe and developed two strategies to obtain single-molecule information on co-transcriptional splicing of endogenous genes: (1) with paired-end short read sequencing, I obtained the 3’ nascent transcript ends, which reflect the position of Pol II molecules during transcription, and the splicing status of the nascent RNAs. This is detected by sequencing the exon-intron or exon-exon junctions of the transcripts. Thus, this strategy links Pol II position with intron splicing of nascent RNA. The increase in the fraction of spliced transcripts with further distance from the intron end provides valuable information on when co-transcriptional splicing occurs. (2) with Pacific Biosciences sequencing (PacBio) of full-length nascent RNA, it is possible to determine the splicing pattern of transcripts with multiple introns, e.g. sequentially with transcription or also non-sequentially. Part of transcription termination is cleavage of the nascent transcript at the polyA site. The splicing status of cleaved and non-cleaved transcripts can provide insights into links between splicing and transcription termination and can be obtained from PacBio data. I found that co-transcriptional splicing in S. pombe is similarly prevalent to other species and that most introns are removed co-transcriptionally. Co-transcriptional splicing levels are dependent on intron position, adjacent exon length, and GC-content, but not splice site sequence. A high level of co-transcriptional splicing is correlated with high gene expression. In addition, I identified low abundance circular RNAs in intron-containing, as well as intronless genes, which could be side-products of RNA transcription and splicing. The analysis of co-transcriptional splicing patterns of 88 endogenous S. cerevisiae genes showed that the majority of intron splicing occurs within 100 nt downstream of the 3‘ SS. Saturation levels vary, and confirm results of a previous study. The onset of splicing is very close to the transcribing polymerase (within 27 nt) and implies that spliceosome assembly and conformational rearrangements must be completed immediately upon synthesis of the 3‘ SS. For S. pombe genes with multiple introns, most detected transcripts were completely spliced or completely unspliced. A smaller fraction showed partial splicing with the first intron being most often not spliced. Close to the polyA site, most transcripts were spliced, however uncleaved transcripts were often completely unspliced. This suggests a beneficial influence of pre-mRNA splicing for efficient transcript termination. Overall, sequencing of nascent RNA with the two strategies developed in this work offers significant potential for the analysis of co-transcriptional splicing, transcription termination and also RNA polymerase pausing by profiling nascent 3’ ends. I could define the position of pre-mRNA splicing during the process of transcription and provide evidence for fast and efficient co-transcriptional splicing in S. cerevisiae and S. pombe, which is associated with highly expressed genes in both organisms. Differences in S. pombe co-transcriptional splicing could be linked to gene architecture features, like intron position, GC-content and exon length.

Das Schicksal einer differenzierten Zelle wird durch epigenetische Grenzen bestimmt und mittels Schutzmechanismen bewahrt, wodurch die Reprogrammierung in andere Zelltypen verhindert wird. In dieser Studie haben wir ein Chromatin-regulierendes Protein, das konservierte MORF4-Verwandte-Gen (MRG) Protein MRG-1, als Barriere für die Reprogrammierung von Zellen in Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) identifiziert. RNAi gegen MRG-1 ermöglicht es uns Keimzellen mittels Überexpression des Neuronen-induzierenden Transkriptionsfaktors CHE-1 in neuronenartige Zellen umzuwandeln. Mittels ChIP-seq fanden wir heraus, dass MRG-1 unterschiedliche DNA Bindungsstellen in den Keimbahnen und somatischen Geweben von C. elegans aufweist. Wir konnten zeigen, dass MRG-1 besonders stark am Genkörper angereichert ist und sich hauptsächlich auf Genen befindet, welche die aktive Histonmarkierung H3K36me3 tragen. Die Charakterisierung der Protein-Protein-Interaktionspartner von MRG-1 mittels Co-IP/MS ergab, dass MRG-1 mit der Histon-H3K9-Methyltransferase SET-26 und der b-gebundenen N-Acetylglucosamin Transferase OGT-1 zusammenarbeitet, um die Umwandlung von Keimzellen in Neuronen zu verhindern. Basierend auf RNA-Seq Experimenten in mrg-1-Mutanten und Wildtyp konnten wir weitreichende Veränderungen der Genexpression mit Auswirkung auf Signalwege wie den Notch Signalweg enthüllen, welcher bekanntermaßen die Zelltyp-Reprogrammierung fördern. Mittels Long-Read basiertem RNA-seq in mrg-1-Mutanten und der Integration entsprechender ChIP-seq Daten habe ich die Beteiligung von MRG-1 am prä-mRNA-Spleißen in C. elegans gezeigt, analog zum Säugetierortholog MRG15. Diese Ergebnisse weisen darauf hin, dass MRG-1 durch die Regulierung des Chromatins und die Sicherstellung des korrekten Spleißens die Expressionsniveaus kritischer Gene und Signalwege aufrechterhält, um eine ordnungsgemäße Keimbahnentwicklung zu gewährleisten und das Schicksal der Keimzellen zu schützen. / Das Schicksal einer differenzierten Zelle wird durch epigenetische Grenzen bestimmt und mittels Schutzmechanismen bewahrt, wodurch die Reprogrammierung in andere Zelltypen verhindert wird. In dieser Studie haben wir ein Chromatin-regulierendes Protein, das konservierte MORF4-Verwandte-Gen (MRG) Protein MRG-1, als Barriere für die Reprogrammierung von Zellen in Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) identifiziert. RNAi gegen MRG-1 ermöglicht es uns Keimzellen mittels Überexpression des Neuronen-induzierenden Transkriptionsfaktors CHE-1 in neuronenartige Zellen umzuwandeln. Mittels ChIP-seq fanden wir heraus, dass MRG-1 unterschiedliche DNA Bindungsstellen in den Keimbahnen und somatischen Geweben von C. elegans aufweist. Wir konnten zeigen, dass MRG-1 besonders stark am Genkörper angereichert ist und sich hauptsächlich auf Genen befindet, welche die aktive Histonmarkierung H3K36me3 tragen. Die Charakterisierung der Protein-Protein-Interaktionspartner von MRG-1 mittels Co-IP/MS ergab, dass MRG-1 mit der Histon-H3K9-Methyltransferase SET-26 und der b-gebundenen N-Acetylglucosamin Transferase OGT-1 zusammenarbeitet, um die Umwandlung von Keimzellen in Neuronen zu verhindern. Basierend auf RNA-Seq Experimenten in mrg-1-Mutanten und Wildtyp konnten wir weitreichende Veränderungen der Genexpression mit Auswirkung auf Signalwege wie den Notch Signalweg enthüllen, welcher bekanntermaßen die Zelltyp-Reprogrammierung fördern. Mittels Long-Read basiertem RNA-seq in mrg-1-Mutanten und der Integration entsprechender ChIP-seq Daten habe ich die Beteiligung von MRG-1 am prä-mRNA-Spleißen in C. elegans gezeigt, analog zum Säugetierortholog MRG15. Diese Ergebnisse weisen darauf hin, dass MRG-1 durch die Regulierung des Chromatins und die Sicherstellung des korrekten Spleißens die Expressionsniveaus kritischer Gene und Signalwege aufrechterhält, um eine ordnungsgemäße Keimbahnentwicklung zu gewährleisten und das Schicksal der Keimzellen zu schützen.