<p> Quantum computers will potentially outperform classical computers for certain applications by employing quantum states to store and process information. However, algorithms using quantum states are prone to errors through continuous decay, posing unique challenges to engineering a quantum system with enough quantum bits and sufficient controls to solve interesting problems. A promising platform for implementing quantum computers is that of circuit quantum electrodynamics (cQED) using superconducting qubits. Here, two energy levels of a resonant circuit endowed with a Josephson junction serve as the qubit, which is coupled to a microwave-frequency electromagnetic resonator. Modern quantum circuits are reaching size and complexity that puts extreme demands on input/output connections as well as selective isolation among internal elements. Continued progress will require adapting sophisticated 3D integration and RF packaging techniques found in today's high-density classical devices to the cQED platform. This novel technology will take the form of multilayer microwave integrated quantum circuits (MMIQCs), combining the superb coherence of three-dimensional structures with the advantages of lithographic integrated circuit fabrication. Several design and fabrication techniques are essential to this new physical architecture, notably micromachining, superconducting wafer bonding, and out-of-plane qubit coupling. This thesis explores these techniques and culminates in the design, fabrication, and measurement of a two-cavity/one-qubit MMIQC featuring qubit coupling to a superconducting micromachined cavity resonator in silicon wafers. Current prototypes are extensible to larger scale MMIQCs for scalable quantum information processing.</p><p>

This thesis is concerned with the characterisation, fabrication and testing of devices capable of generating and detecting terahertz (THz) radiation. Such devices are based on semiconductor photoconductors grown under low temperature (LT) conditions using the technique of Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE). The absorption of a pulsed or continuous wave (CW) signal by these structures in conjunction with the presence of an electric field generates photocurrent, which is fed into an antenna structure fabricated on the surface of the active layers. As a result of such a sequence, a THz signal is generated and radiated from the substrate side into free space. Therefore, the efficiency of the devices is determined by the characteristics of the photoconductors and the geometry of the designed antenna structures. The desired material characteristics are high absorption at the corresponding illumination wavelength, high dark resistivity, high electron mobility and sub picosecond carrier lifetime. The determination of these characteristics for all the structures grown in this work composes the characterisation part of the thesis. The fabrication part comprises of the design of several antenna structures with various geometrical characteristics, while the testing part consists of their evaluation as THz sources and detectors in a time-domain spectroscopy (TDS) system under pulsed excitation. To date, THz devices based on low temperature grown GaAs (LT-GaAs) photoconductors have been reported to be the most efficient. However, their operational wavelength, at 800 nm, requires very expensive and complex components spurring interests in solutions consisting of devices operating at longer wavelengths, where cheaper and simpler components exist. The most desirable and practical operational wavelength is the telecommunication one at 1.55 μm. Thus, the biggest challenge is the development of efficient devices operating at this illumination wavelength. In this work, devices operating at the very important wavelength of 1.55 μm as well as at the wavelengths of 1 μm and 800 nm are presented. The key findings for the long wavelength devices (1.55 μm) demonstrate photoconductors with ultrafast carrier lifetimes (~ 120 fs), high resistivity (> 105 Ω / sq), high mobility (> 1000 cm2 / Vs) and system responses with spectral range up to 3 THz and power-to-noise ratio of 60 dB. These characteristics are among the best ever reported for such material systems, making them efficient THz devices for various optoelectronic applications, especially for telecommunication laser-driven CW THz systems.

<p> Ice Ih, formed by freezing liquid water below 273&sim;K at atmospheric pressure, is well-known and highly-studied, but some of its fundamental physical properties have mystified scientists since the early twentieth century. The thermal expansion is one of those properties; the low relative-resolution of past measurements has left questions regarding the structural isotropy and negative thermal expansion (NTE). Furthermore, the existence of relaxation phenomena near 100&sim;K, related to the residual entropy at 0&sim;K, may reveal itself through subtle features in the thermal expansion and, thus, warrants further investigation. Here we measure the thermal expansion of ultra-pure single crystal ice from 5&ndash;265&sim;K with 10⁶ times higher relative resolution than has previously been made. The data reveal a distinct crossover to NTE below 62&sim;K, and a third-order transition along the crystallographic \(c\)-axis near 100&sim;K, as evident by an unambiguous relaxational decrease in the thermal expansion coefficient on cooling. To further understand the nature of the transition, isotopic substitution and dielectric measurements were performed. </p><p> Three properties of the dielectric relaxation in ice were probed at temperatures between 80--250&sim;K; the thermally stimulated depolarization (TSD) current, static electrical conductivity, and dielectric relaxation time. The dielectric data agree with relaxation-based models and provide for the determination of activation energies which identify the dielectric relaxation in ice as being dominated by Bjerrum defects below 140&sim;K. An anisotropy was also found in the data which revealed that molecular reorientations, in the form of propagating Bjerrum point defects, are energetically favored along the \(c\)-axis between 80--140&sim;K. Furthermore, a similar relaxational effect to that observed in the thermal expansion was observed in the TSD along \(c\), providing a strong correlation between dielectric relaxation and inherent thermodynamic relaxation in ice. Finally, isotopic substitution in both measurement sets indicates the transition is related the movements of hydrogen nuclei, not those of the whole molecule, and provides details about the low-temperature phonon modes. These findings paint a picture of ice as a proton-disordered crystal which undergoes a partial ordering on cooling near 100&sim;K but, before an ordered equilibrium state is realized, the exponentially increasing relaxation time rapidly slows the ordering and ultimately freezes-in the residual entropy, causing a continuous decrease in the thermal expansion coefficient. </p><p>

No description available.

When a gas undergoes an exothermic reaction in a closed vessel, spatial temperature gradients can develop. If these gradients become sufficiently large, the resulting buoyancy forces will move the gas, i.e. there is natural convection. The nature of the resulting flow is determined by the Rayleigh number, Ra = (β g ΔT L^3) / (κ ν). The evolution of such a system will depend on the interactions of natural convection, diffusion of both heat and chemical species, and chemical reaction. This study is concerned with a gas-phase system undergoing Sal'nikov's reaction: P → A → B, in the presence of natural convection. This kinetic scheme is used as a simplified representation of a cool flame, which is a feature of the low temperature combustion of a hydrocarbon vapour. Sal'nikov's reaction is one of the simplest to display thermokinetic oscillations, such as those seen in cool flames. The behaviour of Sal'nikov's reaction in the presence of natural convection was investigated using a combination of analytical and numerical techniques. First, a numerical model was developed to compute the temperature, velocity and concentrations when a simple exothermic reaction occurs in a spherical batch reactor, the results of which could be compared with previous experimental measurements. Subsequently, a scaling analysis of Sal'nikov's reaction proceeding in a spherical reactor was performed. This yielded significant insight into the general behaviour of this and similar systems. The forms of the analytical scales were confirmed through comparison with the results from numerical simulations. These scales were used to predict how the system responds to changes in certain key process variables, such as the pressure and the size of the reactor. It was shown that the behaviour of this system is governed by the ratios of the characteristic timescales for diffusion, reaction and natural convection. These ratios were used to define a regime diagram describing the system. The behaviour in different parts of this regime diagram was characterised and regions in which oscillations occur were identified.

New federal regulations with regards to ammonia in wastewater effluent discharge will require over 1000 existing wastewater treatment facilities to be upgraded. Although biological treatment is the most common and economical means of wastewater ammonia removal, nitrification rates can be completely impeded at cold temperatures. Moving bed biofilm reactors (MBBR) have shown promise as an upgrade nitrifying unit at pilot-scale and full-scale applications with respect to low temperature nitrification. MBBR technologies offfer the advantages of less space requirement, utilizing the whole tank volume, no sludge recycling, and no backwashing, over other attached growth systems. Two laboratory MBBRs were used in this study to investigate MBBR nitrification rates at 20deg.C, after long-term exposure to 1deg.C, and at the kinetic threshold temperature of 5deg.C. Furthermore, the biologically produced solids from the MBBR system 20deg.C and after long-term exposure to 1deg.C, and the Arrhenius temperature correction models used to predict nitrification rates after long-term exposure to 1deg.C. The nitrification rates at 1deg.C over a four month exposure period as compared to the rate at 20deg.C were 18.7 + 5.5% and 15.7 + 4.7% for the two reactors. The nitrification rate at 5deg.C was 66.2 + 3.9% and 64.4 + 3.7% compared to the rate measured at 20deg.C for reactors 1 and 2, respectively, and as such was identified as the kinetic temperature threshold. The quantity of solids detached from the nitrifying MBBR biocarriers was low and did not vary significantly at 20deg.C and after long-term exposure to 1deg.C. Lastly, a temperature correction model based on exposure time to cold temperatures, developed by Delatolla et al. (2009) showed a strong correlation to the calculated ammonia removal rates relative to 20deg.C following a gradual acclimatization period to cold temperatures. Biofilm morphology along with biomass viability at various depths in the biofilm were investigated using variable pressure electron scanning microscope imaging (VPSEM) and confocal laser scanning microscope (CLSM) imaging in combination with viability live/dead staining. The biofilm thickness along with the number of viable cells showed significant increases after long-term exposure to 1deg.C while the dead cell coverage did not show significant increases after long-term exposure to 1deg.C while the dead cell coverage did not show significant changes. Hence, this study observed higher cell activities at warm temperatures and a slightly greater quantity of biomass with lower activities at cold temperatures in nitrifying MBBR biofilms. Using DNA sequencing analysis, 'Nitrosomonas' and 'Nitrosospira' (ammonia oxidizers)as well as 'Ntrospira' (nitrite oxidizer) were identified in which no population shift was observed during 20deg.C and after long-term exposure to 1deg.C. Furthermore, a number of non-nitrifiers were identified int he biofilm during warm and cold temperatures presenting the possibility that their presence may have provided some form of protection to the nitrifiers during long-term temperature exposure.

Nitrification is currently the most common means of ammonia removal from wastewaters in temperate climates. In conventional suspended growth systems operating in northern climate regions, nitrification completely ceases at temperatures below 8°C. This is a considerable concern in passive treatment systems where wastewater temperatures can reach as low as 1°C for extended periods in the winter months. There is evidence biofilm technologies have the ability to nitrify at low temperatures, however, the literature is missing an understanding of low temperature nitrification and the subsequent impacts during seasonal changes. Additionally, there is an urgent need to gain a fundamental knowledge of the interplay between nitrifying performance optimization, biofilm morphology and the microbiome. This research aims to fill these needs using nitrifying moving bed biofilm reactors (MBBRs) at the lab and pilot scale. This research concluded the most important factor determining MBBR carrier selection is a combination of surface area and pore space size. Although high surface area to volume carriers are attractive, the propensity to clog at high loading rates significantly decreases the removal rates. The viability of the biomass and ammonia oxidizing bacterial communities were not significantly changed, indicating the ammonia removal rates were reduced due to loss of surface area in the clogged carriers. Operation at 1°C demonstrated significant rates of nitrification can be attained and stable for extended periods of operation. This study developed the first kinetic curve at 1°C with a maximum removal rate of 0.35 gN/m2·d. The performance of the post carbon removal nitrifying MBBR systems were shown to be enhanced at 1°C by an increase in the viable embedded biomass as well as thicker biofilm. This effectively increased the number of viable cells present during low temperature operation, which partially compensated for the significant decrease in rate of ammonia removal per nitrifying cell. At all studied loading rates at 1°C, the ammonia oxidizing bacteria were primarily in the family Nitrosomonadaceae (greater than 95 percent abundance of AOB population) and the nitrite oxidizing bacteria were primarily the genus Nitrospira (greater than 99 percent abundance of NOB population). Operation at 20°C demonstrated high rates of removal in high loaded condition and robustness in extreme low loaded conditions. In both high loaded and extreme low loaded conditions the viability of the nitrifying biomass was sustained, with the family Nitrosomonadaceae as the primary ammonia oxidizing bacteria and the genus Nitrospira as the primary nitrite oxidizing bacteria. In extreme low loaded conditions and as well during start-up phases there are high prevalence of bacteria not directly related to the nitrification process. Their presence however indicates a dynamic process with changes in microbial composition within the biofilm matrix in response to varying conditions. Change in microbial composition likely helps stabilize and maintain the biofilm matrix enhancing process robustness in the temperate climates. The new knowledge gained in this research optimizes the operation of nitrifying MBBR systems and elucidates the impacts of operational conditions on the biofilm and microbial community of nitrifying MBBR systems to further our understanding of nitrifying attached growth treatment technologies. The results of this study are anticipated to be used to design the first MBBR treatment system for year round ammonia removal in passive treatment systems located in northern climate regions.

Acclimation of photosynthesis allows plants to adjust the composition of their photosynthetic apparatus to adapt to changes in the environment, and is important in maintaining fitness. Dynamic acclimation refers to acclimation of fully developed leaves, after developmental processes have ceased. Rates of photosynthesis fluctuate with environmental change, and this requires metabolic adjustments. It has previously been shown that acclimation requires the chloroplastic glucose 6-phosphate/ phosphate translocator GPT2. Using label-free proteomics we characterised the acclimation deficient gpt2 mutant. High light acclimation involves changes in the composition of the photosynthetic proteome and increases in many other metabolic enzymes, but in gpt2 plants, a reduced ability to alter protein composition, and enhanced stress responses were seen. Using a combined transcriptomics and proteomics approach we also analysed acclimation to low temperature. We show that photosynthetic acclimation requires the cytosolic fumarase, FUM2. In fum2 mutants, an enhanced transcriptional response to low temperature was seen, which was impaired at the level of the proteome, relative to the WT. We also identified a protein encoding a β-Amylase, BAM5, that strongly responded to high light acclimation. The role of this protein was further characterised, and we show a nonchloroplastic location. Furthermore, suppression of this gene resulted in plants that were unable to acclimate, and had a reduced sugar content. This research highlights novel and diverse roles for proteins in acclimation, and provides a comprehensive proteomic profiling of high light and low temperature acclimation that has previously been lacking.

O nitrato é uma das principais fontes de nitrogênio disponível para as plantas, sendo a nitrato redutase (NR) a enzima responsável pela sua redução a nitrito. O nitrito é considerado tóxico em altas concentrações e, por esse motivo, a atividade da NR possui uma regulação complexa, principalmente em nível transcricional e pós-traducional. Trabalhos anteriores do nosso grupo, utilizando plantas de abacaxizeiro cultivadas in vitro, demonstraram que, em condições de termoperíodo de 28ºC dia/15ºC noite, as raízes apresentaram um estímulo positivo de atividade da NR na ausência de luz quando comparado às plantas crescidas em temperatura constante de 28ºC, associado posteriormente à atividade da NR de membrana plasmática (NRPM). Baseado nesses resultados questionou-se qual seria a influência da aplicação do estímulo de frio associado ou não à presença de luz na atividade da NR em folhas e raízes de abacaxizeiro. Este trabalho teve como objetivos investigar os efeitos do frio na atividade da NR em folhas e raízes de abacaxizeiro em diferentes tempos de exposição, na presença ou ausência da luz e em diferentes fases do ciclo de 24 horas (claro/escuro). Buscou-se averiguar qual NR estaria envolvida nessas respostas: a NR citossólica (NRc) ou de membrana plasmática (NRPM), assim como verificar o envolvimento do NO na sinalização pela baixa temperatura. O ritmo diário de atividade da NR também foi avaliado, logo após a exposição ao frio, em diferentes fases do ciclo de claro/escuro. As plantas foram expostas a 1, 3, 6 ou 9 horas a 10ºC ou 25ºC (controle) na luz ou no escuro. A NR foi avaliada pelo método in vitro. O estímulo positivo na atividade da NR pelo frio ocorreu principalmente após 6 horas no claro, para as folhas, e após 6 horas no escuro, para as raízes. Novas plantas foram submetidas às mesmas condições para o fracionamento celular, mostrando que, tanto em folhas como em raízes, o incremento de atividade da NR observado a 10ºC foi associado à NR citossólica (NRc). Em ambos os casos, o estímulo ocorreu utilizando-se o NADPH como doador de elétrons, sugerindo o possível envolvimento de uma isoforma NAD(P)H biespecífica. A quantificação do NO foi realizada por leitura em espectrofluorímetro, apontando uma maior emissão induzida pelo frio para as folhas tanto na presença da luz (após 1 e 3 horas) como em sua ausência (1 e 9 horas) e em raízes apenas no escuro (9 horas), sugerindo o envolvimento do NO na sinalização da baixa temperatura. Para verificar a influência do frio em diferentes fases do dia, 4 horários foram selecionados (início da fase clara, meio da fase clara, início da fase escura, meio da fase escura) para início de cada experimento. A NR foi medida logo após a exposição ao frio (6 horas a 10ºC), pelo método in vitro e durante 24 horas em reaquecimento (25ºC), quantificada a cada 3 horas pelo método in vivo. As raízes apresentaram aumento da atividade da NR apenas quando o estímulo da baixa temperatura foi aplicado na fase escura, enquanto as folhas sofreram incremento da atividade da NR independente da condição luminosa. Em reaquecimento, a NR das folhas teve seu ritmo atrasado em todas as situações, com exceção quando o frio foi aplicado no início da fase escura, na qual houve perda quase completa de variação ao longo do dia. As raízes não mostraram grandes alterações no ritmo diário da NR. Este trabalho mostrou que a temperatura de 10ºC tem efeitos diferentes sobre folhas e raízes, sendo que as modificações na atividade da NR, em curto prazo, parecem ocorrer por alterações na NRc. O NO parece estar envolvido na sinalização do frio, mas não se determinou sua origem biossintética. As raízes tiveram um aumento da atividade da NR pela baixa temperatura, que foi dependente do escuro, enquanto as respostas das folhas dependeram da fase do ciclo na qual foram submetidas a 10ºC / Nitrate is the main nitrogen source available to plants, and nitrate reductase (NR) is the enzyme responsible for its reduction to nitrite. Because of its toxicity in high concentrations, nitrite production by NR has a complex regulation, especially at transcriptional and post-translational level. A previous work from our group, using pineapple plants cultivated in vitro, showed that, under thermoperiod of 28ºC day/15ºC night, NR activity increased in roots during absence of light compared to activity in plants grown under constant temperature of 28ºC. Based on these results it was questioned what would be the effect of cold stimulus application with or without light on NR activity in leaves and roots of pineapple plants. This study aimed to investigate the effects of low temperature on NR activity in leaves and roots of pineapple plants at different exposure times in the presence or absence of light and at different phases of a 24 hour cycle (light/darkness). We also investigated which NR was involved in these responses: cytosolic (cNR) or plasma membrane NR (PMNR), as well as verifying the role of nitric oxide (NO) signaling at low temperature. Furthermore, the NR daily rhythm activity was measured after cold exposure, in different phases of the light/dark cycle. Plants were exposed to 10ºC or 25ºC (control group) during 1, 3, 6 or 9 hours. NR was quantified by in vitro method. In the leaves, the increase of NR activity by low temperature (10ºC) occurred mainly after 6 hours in the presence of light, while in the roots the highest NR activity occurred after 6 hours at 10ºC in darkness. Based on these results, other groups of plants were subjected to the same conditions for cell partitioning, showing that in both leaves and roots the increase of NR activity by cold was associated with cytosolic NR (NRc). In both cases, the positive stimulation occurred with NADPH as the electron donor, suggesting the possible involvement of a NAD(P)H bispecific isoform. NO quantification, measured by spectrofluorimetry, indicated a greater emission induced by cold in the leaves both in the presence (after 1 and 3 hours) and absence (1 and 9 hours) of light and in roots only in darkness (9 hours), suggesting an involvement of NO in low temperature signaling. To evaluate the influence of cold at different day phases, we performed 4 experiments beginning at different times of the 24-hour cycle (beginning of light phase, middle of light phase, beginning of dark phase, middle of dark phase). NR activity was measured immediately after cold exposure (6 hours at 10°C) by in vitro method and after rewarming at 25°C during 24 hours, quantified by in vivo method every 3 hours. In roots, NR activity showed an increase only when the cold stimulus was applied at dark phase, while in leaves, NR was independent of the light condition. Upon rewarming, leaves presented a delay in NR daily behavior in all situations, except when low temperature was applied at the beginning of dark phase, showing almost no variation throughout the day. This study demonstrated that the temperature of 10ºC affected leaves and roots differently, and the changes in NR activity after short exposure time could be associated with NRc. NO seemed to be involved in cold signaling, but its biosynthetic origin has not been determined yet. Roots showed an increment of NR activity by low temperature dependent of the dark condition, while the responses of leaves depended on the phase of the 24-hour cycle in which they were subjected to 10ºC

This dissertation concentrates on the existence, stability and dynamical properties of nonlinear waves in Bose-Einstein condensates (BECs) trapped in doublewell potentials (DWPs). The fundamental model of interest will be the nonlinear Schrödinger equation, the so-called Gross-Pitaevskii (GP) equation, contributed to the well-established mean-field description of BECs. In this context of the GP equation with DWP, a Galerkin-type few-mode approach provides us a powerful handle towards studying the stationary states and predicting the bifurcation diagram including the occurrence of spontaneous symmetry breaking (SSB). Such method and the corresponding phenomena are discussed based on a prototypical quasi-1D model in Chapter 2. The systematic analysis progresses by considering various modified models, starting with the ones involving different interatomic interactions, e.g., collisionally inhomogeneous interactions, long-range interactions, and competing of short- and long-range interactions. We observe how the basic SSB bifurcation structure persists or is appropriately modified in the presence of these interactions in Chapter 3. We also extend the study to multi-component systems, including nonlinearly coupled two-component settings and F = 1 spinor BECs (genuinely three-component settings) confined in DWPs, where besides the one-component stationary states, combined states involving two or three components appear as well, and novel SSB phenomena emerge within them. Finally the trapped stationary modes of a twodimensional (2D) GP equation with a symmetric four-well potential are explored, providing the picture of SSB in the fundamental 2D setting. These various systems are studied in Chapter 4 - 6. In all models, our analytical predictions based on the few-mode approximation are in excellent agreement with the numerical results of the full GP equations.