Transcription factors regulate distinct macrophage functions by regulating gene expression in response to micro-environmental cues. This functional plasticity is critical for regulating innate and adaptive immune responses during infection and during chronic disease processes including inflammatory diseases and cancer. Microarray analysis of macrophages polarized to a pro-inflammatory (M1) phenotype with LPS and IFNγ revealed that basic leucine zipper transcription factor ATF-like 2 (Batf2), a member of the AP1 transcription factors, is selectively upregulated in M1 macrophages compared to anti-inflammatory IL-4-polarized (M2) macrophages. The initial hypothesis was that Batf2 is a master regulator of gene expression that orchestrates M1 polarization. To investigate a potential role of Batf2 during macrophage polarization, its expression in M1 polarized macrophages was examined. Batf2 mRNA appears within 60 minutes following LPS/ IFNγ treatment and is sustained for at least 48 hours. To address the hypothesis that Batf2 acts as a master transcriptional factor driving a functional M1 phenotype, we have established macrophage cell lines that constitutively express Batf2. Batf2 overexpression did not enhance key M1-associated genes, including iNOS and H2-Aa, but did enhance LPS/IFNγ-driven Cxcl10. Batf2 overexpression also failed to suppress key M2-associated genes including Fizz1 and Mrc1. Batf2 overexpression also failed to alter multiple non-immunity-related genes established or predicted to be downstream of Batf2 in macrophages or other cells. Overall, contrary to our initial hypothesis, constitutive Batf2 expression by itself does not appear to broadly induce M1 gene expression; rather, it appears to enhance only select genes. Since other Batf family members interact with members of the IRF family, I discuss the possibility that Batf2 works in conjunction with a limiting cofactor, possibly Irf family members and/or other regulatory proteins.

published_or_final_version / Medicine / Master / Master of Philosophy

Red blood cells (RBCs) are vital for oxygen delivery to tissues and constitute the vast majority of all cells in blood. After leaving the red bone marrow as mature cells, RBCs have a lifespan of approximately 120 days before they are removed from the circulation by macrophages, mainly in the spleen and liver. RBC transfusion is a common therapy in modern healthcare. Major surgery, numerous cancer treatments and other, often lifesaving, interventions would be unthinkable without available blood supply. For this reason, hospitals store donated RBCs in blood banks. The metabolic and structural changes that occur during prolonged storage of RBCs (the storage lesion) have been studied in detail in vitro and include oxidative stress, a reduction in glycolysis, increased membrane rigidity and shedding of microparticles from the RBC membrane. Stored RBCs share several features of senescent RBCs, but also with RBCs undergoing an apoptotic-like process called eryptosis. A consequence of the storage lesion is the fact that as much as 25% of stored RBCs could be rapidly removed from the circulation within 24 hours after transfusion. The mechanisms behind this rapid macrophage-mediated recognition and removal of stored RBCs, and its immunological consequences, remain largely unknown. Therefore, the aims of this thesis were to investigate if cryopreserved human RBCs induced an inflammatory response following autologous transfusion into healthy volunteers, and to further understand the mechanisms behind macrophage recognition of stored RBCs in vitro and in vivo. Autologous transfusion of two units of cryopreserved RBCs into healthy human recipients was found to be associated with an increased extravascular RBC elimination already at 2 hours after transfusion. However, there were no signs of an increased production of any of the investigated pro-inflammatory cytokines, indicating that an increase in the destruction of RBCs per se did not induce an inflammatory response. Eryptosis is a form of induced RBC death associated with an increased cytoplasmic Ca2+ uptake. We found that a subset of human RBCs increased their Ca2+ permeability during prolonged storage at +4°C. Using a murine model, to further understand how RBCs with an increased Ca2+ permeability were eliminated by phagocytic cells in the spleen, it was found that such RBCs were taken up by marginal zone macrophages and dendritic cells (DCs) in a manner distinct from that of naturally senescent RBCs. The DC population particularly efficient in this process expressed CD207 and are known for their ability to promote immunological tolerance. Eryptotic cell uptake was not regulated by the phagocytosis-inhibitory protein CD47 on the RBCs. To investigate how RBCs damaged during liquid storage are recognized and taken up by macrophages, a model to store and transfuse murine RBCs was developed. This storage model generated murine RBCs with several characteristics similar to that of stored human RBCs (i.e. loss of ATP, formation of RBC microparticles and rapid clearance of up to 35% of the RBCs during the first 24 h after transfusion). In vitro phagocytosis of human as well as murine stored RBCs was serum dependent and could be inhibited by blocking class A scavenger receptors using fucoidan or dextran sulphate. In conclusion, the findings of this thesis contribute to further understanding how changes inflicted to RBCs during storage direct the fate of these cells in their interaction with cells of the immune system after transfusion. The observation of an increased Ca2+ permeability of stored RBCs, and the possible recognition of such cells by tolerance-promoting DCs, in combination with the findings that class A scavenger receptors and serum factors may mediate recognition of stored RBCs, may result in novel new directions of research within the field of transfusion medicine.

Patients with cystic fibrosis who are infected with the pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa have shown favorable responses to the drug azithromycin (AZM). This drug works in an anti-inflammatory capacity, improving clinical outcomes and improving quality of life in this population. The drug has also been shown to affect macrophage polarization by shifting these cells away from an inflammatory phenotype toward an alternatively activated anti-inflammatory phenotype. The full impact of this phenotypic change is not well understood in the context of the response to P. aeruginosa infection, or the overall immune response in cystic fibrosis. To understand how the AZM-polarized macrophage affects other types of cells, we utilized a co-culture in vitro system, with macrophages and fibroblasts incubating together. In this system, we determined that AZM causes upregulation of the pro-fibrotic mediator transforming growth factor-β as well as the extracellular matrix (ECM) protein fibronectin. The mediator of ECM turnover, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9 was upregulated in this system as well. In an in vivo model of P. aeruginosa infection, MMP- 9 and fibronectin were increased in the bronchoalveolar lavage 7 days post-infection in mice that were treated with AZM. This was accompanied by a decrease in damage to the lung tissue, determine by histological examination. To determine if these changes would continue in human subjects with cystic fibrosis, a clinical study was done in this population. Subjects with AZM treatment had decreased TGF-β levels, but no differences in MMP-9 or fibronectin. Interestingly, correlations between certain fibrotic mediators and inflammatory cytokines, specifically interleukin -1β, were different in subjects with AZM treatment compared to subjects without AZM therapy. Together, these data indicate that AZM alters the fibrotic response from the macrophages, as well as the interaction of the inflammatory response and fibrosis development.

Atherosclerosis is a disease characterized by cholesterol-rich plaques within the intima of medium and large arteries. Cholesterol deposition is thought to occur by infiltration of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) into lesions followed by uptake into macrophages, generating lipid-loaded “foam cells.” Foam cells can also be generated in vitro by treatment of macrophages with LDL or oxidized LDL (oxLDL). The purpose of the current investigation was to determine the contribution of selective cholesteryl ester (CE) uptake versus whole-particle uptake during LDL-induced foam cell formation in cultured macrophages. Murine bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMMs) exhibited significant cholesterol accumulation when treated with LDL as indicated by quantification of cellular cholesterol and visualization of Oil Red-O-stained neutral lipid droplets. Uptake of LDL cholesterol was determined by measuring uptake of 3H and 125I into BMMs during treatment with [3H]CE/125I-LDL. [3H]CE uptake was linearly related to the LDL concentration at the concentrations used and was much larger than 125I uptake, indicating that the majority of LDL-cholesterol was acquired by nonsaturable, selective CE uptake. This pathway was demonstrated to be independent of whole-particle uptake by showing that inhibition of actin polymerization blocked LDL particle uptake but not selective CE uptake. Analysis by thin-layer chromatography (TLC) indicated that following uptake, [3H]CE was rapidly hydrolyzed into [3H]cholesterol by cells and largely effluxed into the culture medium. In contrast to LDL, studies of [3H]CE/125I-oxLDL uptake demonstrated that CE was acquired from oxLDL by whole-particle uptake with little or no selective CE uptake. Using a series of ten different [3H]CE/125I-oxLDLs oxidized for 0-24 hours, selective [3H]CE uptake was shown to be progressively impaired by LDL oxidation, while 125I-LDL particle uptake was increased as expected. Interestingly, the impairment of selective CE uptake occurred very early in LDL oxidation and this minimally oxidized LDL induced significantly less cholesterol accumulation in BMMs compared to native LDL. Together, these results demonstrate that selective CE uptake is the primary mode of cholesterol uptake from LDL but not oxidized LDL, a finding that has important implications for cholesterol metabolism in atherosclerotic lesions. Future studies seek to identify the molecular components that participate in the macrophage selective CE uptake mechanism.

Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) following hemorrhagic shock/resuscitation (S/R) is an important contributor to late morbidity and mortality in trauma patients. S/R promotes ARDS by inducing oxidative stress that primes cells of the innate immune system for excessive responsiveness to small inflammatory stimuli, termed the “twohit” hypothesis. Activated alveolar macrophages (AM) play a central role and when recovered from S/R animals exhibit an exaggerated responsiveness to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) with increased activation of the proinflammatory transcription factor NF-κB, and augmented expression of cytokines. LPS triggers AM signalling through Toll like receptor 4 (TLR4), which resides in plasma membrane lipid rafts. The objective of this work is to define cellular mechanisms of macrophage priming by oxidative stress following shock resuscitation. The main hypothesis investigated is that altered cellular distribution of TLR4 can lead to macrophage priming and antioxidant resuscitation strategies can diminish these effects. AM of rodents, exposed in vivo to oxidant stress following S/R, increase their surface levels of TLR4, which in turn results in augmented NF-κB translocation in response to small doses of LPS. Furthermore, in vitro H2O2 treatment of RAW 264.7 macrophages results in similar TLR4 surface translocation. Depletion of intracellular calcium, disruption of the cytoskeleton or inhibition of the Src kinases prevents the H2O2-induced TLR4 translocation, suggesting the involvement of receptor exocytosis. Further, fluorescent resonance energy iii transfer between TLR4 and lipid rafts as well as biochemical raft analysis demonstrated that oxidative stress redistributes TLR4 to surface lipid rafts. Preventing the oxidant-induced movement of TLR4 to lipid rafts using methyl-ß-cyclodextrin precluded the increased responsiveness of cells to LPS after H2O2 treatment. Further, AM priming by oxidative stress can be diminished by early exposure to resuscitation regimens with direct or indirect systemic antioxidant effects, such as 25% albumin, N-acetylcysteine and hypertonic saline. Hyperosmolarity was found to modulate AM TLR4 gene and protein expression. Collectively, these studies suggest a novel mechanism whereby oxidative stress might prime the responsiveness of cells of the innate immune system. Targeting the TLR4 signalling pathway early during shock resuscitation may represent an anti-inflammatory strategy able to ameliorate late morbidity and mortality following S/R.

Le genre bactérien Salmonella regroupe plus de 2500 sérovars, mais peu sont responsables de pathologies humaines. Salmonella enterica sérovar Typhi (S. Typhi) est reconnu pour son importance médicale à travers le globe. S. Typhi cause la fièvre typhoïde chez l’Homme, une maladie infectieuse létale caractérisée par la dissémination systémique de la bactérie vers des organes du système réticulo-endothélial. La fièvre typhoïde représente un fardeau pour la santé mondiale, notamment auprès des pays en développement où les conditions sanitaires sont désuètes. La situation se complique davantage par l’apparition de souches résistantes aux antibiotiques. De plus, les deux vaccins licenciés sont d’efficacité modérée, présentent certaines contraintes techniques et ne sont pas appropriés pour les jeunes enfants et nourrissons. La phase systémique de l’infection par Salmonella repose sur sa survie dans les macrophages du système immunitaire. Dans ce compartiment intracellulaire, la bactérie module les défenses antimicrobiennes grâce à de multiples facteurs de virulence encodés dans son génome. Les mécanismes moléculaires sollicités sont complexes et finement régulés. Malgré les progrès scientifiques réalisés précédemment, plusieurs incompréhensions persistent au sujet de l’adaptation de ce pathogène dans les macrophages de l’hôte. Pour mieux concevoir les déterminants génétiques de S. Typhi impliqués dans l’interaction avec ces cellules, une stratégie de sélection négative a été appliquée afin de vérifier systématiquement l’effet direct des gènes pendant l’infection. En premier temps, une librairie de mutants par transposon chez S. Typhi a été créée pour l’infection de macrophages humains en culture. Après 24 heures d’infection, la présence des mutants fut évaluée simultanément par analyse sur des biopuces de Salmonella. Au total, 130 gènes ont été sélectionnés pour leur contribution potentielle auprès des macrophages infectés. Ces gènes comptaient des composantes d’enveloppe bactérienne, des éléments fimbriaires, des portions du flagelle, des régulateurs, des facteurs de pathogenèse et plusieurs protéines sans fonction connue. En deuxième temps, cette collection de gènes a dirigé la création de 28 mutants de délétion définie chez S. Typhi. Les capacités d’entrée et de réplication intracellulaire de ces mutants au sein des macrophages humains ont été caractérisées. D’abord, les macrophages ont été co-infectés avec les mutants en présence de la souche sauvage, pour vérifier la compétitivité de chacun d’eux envers cette dernière. Ensuite, les mutants ont été inoculés individuellement chez les macrophages et leur infectivité fut mesurée comparativement à celle de la souche sauvage. Sommairement, 26 mutants ont présenté des défauts lorsqu’en compétition, tandis que 14 mutants se sont montrés défectueux lorsque testés seuls. Par ailleurs, 12 mutants ont exposé une déficience lors de l’infection mixte et individuelle, incluant les mutants acrA, exbDB, flhCD, fliC, gppA, mlc, pgtE, typA, waaQGP, STY1867-68, STY2346 et SPI-4. Notamment, 35 nouveaux phénotypes défectueux d’entrée ou de survie intracellulaire chez Salmonella ont été révélés par cette étude. Les données générées ici offrent plusieurs nouvelles pistes pour élucider comment S. Typhi manipule sa niche intracellulaire, menant à l’infection systémique. Les gènes décrits représentent des cibles potentielles pour atténuer la bactérie chez l’humain et pourraient contribuer au développement de meilleures souches vaccinales pour immuniser contre la fièvre typhoïde. / The bacterial genus Salmonella holds over 2500 serovars, but few are responsible for human pathologies. Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi (S. Typhi) is recognized across the globe for its medical importance. S. Typhi causes typhoid fever in humans, a lethal infectious disease characterized by systemic dissemination of the bacteria to organs of the reticulo-endothelial system. Typhoid fever represents a burden for public health, notably in developing countries where sanitary conditions are obsolete. The situation is further complicated by the appearance of strains resistant to antibiotics. Moreover, both of the licensed vaccines are of moderate efficiency, present certain technical constraints and are not appropriate for young children and newborns. The systemic phase of infection by Salmonella relies on its survival within macrophages of the immune system. In this intracellular compartment, the bacterium modulates antimicrobial defenses thanks to multiple virulence factors encoded within its genome. Molecular mechanisms taking place are complex and finely regulated. Despite scientific advances made previously, many misunderstandings persist concerning the adaptation of this pathogen within host macrophages. To better conceive the genetic determinants of S. Typhi involved in interaction with these cells, a negative selection strategy was applied to systematically verify the direct effect of genes during infection. Firstly, a library of transposon insertion mutants in S. Typhi was created for infection of cultured human macrophages. After 24 hours of infection, the presence of mutants was evaluated simultaneously by analysis on Salmonella microarrays. In total, 130 genes were selected for their potential contribution within infected macrophages. These genes included bacterial envelope components, fimbrial elements, portions of the flagellum, regulators, pathogenesis factors, and many proteins of unknown function. Secondly, this collection of genes led to the creation of 28 defined deletion mutants in S. Typhi. The ability of entry and intracellular replication of these mutants within human macrophages were characterized. To start, macrophages were coinfected with mutants in the presence of the wild-type strain, in order to verify the competitiveness of each of them against the latter. Then, mutants were inoculated individually into macrophages and their infectiveness was measured in comparison with the wild-type strain. In summary, 26 mutants presented defects when in competition, whereas 14 mutants were shown defective when tested alone. Furthermore, 12 mutants exposed a deficiency during mixed and individual infection experiments, including mutants acrA, exbDB, flhCD, fliC, gppA, mlc, pgtE, typA, waaQGP, STY1867-68, STY2346, and SPI-4. In particular, 35 new defective phenotypes of Salmonella entry or intracellular survival were revealed in this study. Data generated here provides significant novel insight for elucidating how S. Typhi manipulates its intracellular niche, leading to systemic infection. Genes described represent potential targets for attenuating the bacteria in the human host and could contribute to the development of better vaccine strains to immunize against typhoid fever.

La voie Fas-FasL est la voie majeure d'apoptose dont le rôle est indispensable pour l'homéostasie des cellules hématopoïétiques et la tolérance périphérique. Mon projet de thèse consiste à étudier le rôle de FasL dans la réponse anti tumorale, notamment le rôle de son expression sur les cellules myéloïdes, en l'occurrence les macrophages et les cellules myéloïdes suppressives.Les souris Fasl KO sont caractérisées par une accumulation des différentes populations de cellules hématopoïétiques dans les organes lymphoïdes périphériques. Cependant, elles ne développent pas de tumeurs spontanées. De façon intéressante, nos résultats montrent que lors qu'elles sont transplantées par les cellules tumorales, leur survie est significativement diminuée par rapport aux souris contrôles (Fasl fl/fl), ce qui suggère un rôle de FasL dans la réponse anti-tumorale. Une caractérisation fine de la répartition des cellules myéloïdes chez les souris Fasl KO porteuses de tumeur, montre une répartition différentielle des cellules Gr1+, par une accumulation des M-MDSC, dans la rate de ces souris. En plus, un enrichissement de l'infiltrat tumoral par les macrophages TAM chez les souris Fasl KO a été observé. Ces macrophages, indépendamment de génotype exècrent une forte activité d'arginase et iNOS et une inhibition de la prolifération des cellules T in vitro. Ainsi, la mortalité plus importante chez les souris Fasl KO pourrait, en partie, être associée à cet enrichissement des TAM dans l'infiltrat des souris déficientes en FasL.Afin de déterminer si cette accumulation des cellules myéloïdes immunosuppressives déficientes en FasL est spécifique d'un environnement tumoral ou le reflet d'un état inflammatoire, nous avons examiné le phénotype des macrophages dans un modèle d'inflammation induite par le thioglycollate. Les résultats montrent que les macrophages CD11b+F480+, recrutés sur le site de l'inflammation, lorsqu'elles sont déficientes en FasL, sur-expriment les gènes anti-inflammatoires comme IL-10, Arg1, CCL17. La caractérisation plus fine de cette population de macrophages a montré que la population responsable de ce phénotype suppressive est F480+CD115+IL-4R+. Chez les souris Fasl KO, le pourcentage des macrophages F480+CD115+IL-4R+ est significativement augmenté en comparaison avec les souris contrôles. L'analyse fonctionnelle de cette population CD115+ a montré que ces cellules, inhibent la prolifération et la production d'IFN- des cellules T activées. Ces caractéristiques fonctionnelles sont en faveur d'un phénotype anti-inflammatoire de ces macrophages, qui lorsqu'ils sont déficients en FasL, leur recrutement sur le site de l'inflammation est plus important.L'ensemble de ces résultats suggère que l'expression de FasL sur les cellules myéloïdes pourrait jouer un rôle dans leur polarisation vers un phénotype pro inflammatoire. Ainsi, ce travail pourrait apporter de nouvelles approches de levée de l'immunosuppression pour une immunothérapie efficace.

Access to abstract permanently restricted to Ball State community only / Access to thesis permanently restricted to Ball State community only / Department of Chemistry

Inflammatory processes mark all stages of atherogenesis. One of the key regulators of inflammation is the transcription factor nuclear factor kappa B (Nf-kb). Nf-kb is the general name for a whole family of dimeric transcription factors. One can distinguish between a classical and an alternative pathway with Rela/p50 (Nf-kb1) and Relb/p52 (Nf-kb2) representing the terminal transcription factors, respectively. Classical Nf-kb1 signaling has been associated with atherosclerotic lesion development many times, mainly because of its regulation of many pro-inflammatory proteins with an established role in atherogenesis. Recent studies provided evidence of crosstalk between classical Nf-kb1 and alternative Nf-kb2 signaling, implicating a potential role for Nf-kb2 in atherogenesis. The aim of the present study was to investigate the influence of Nf-kb2 on atherosclerotic lesion development in a knockout mouse model. Nfkb2 knockout (Nfkb2-/-) mice were generated on two different atherosclerosis sensible backgrounds, the Apoe- and Ldlr- deficient background. Quantification of atherosclerotic lesion development showed, that Nfkb2-/- mice developed significantly more atherosclerosis at the brachiocephalic artery than wild type controls, indicating a protective effect of Nf-kb2 on atherogenesis. Further expression analyses in bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDM) revealed highly significant upregulation of matrix metalloproteinase 9 (Mmp9) in Nfkb2-/- mice. Overexpression of Mmp9 was associated with enhanced macrophage migration across extracellular matrix in vitro and an inflammatory plaque phenotype with advanced, macrophage-rich lesions. Accordingly, increased Mmp9 expression in Nfkb2-/- macrophages might have contributed to enhanced lesion development in these mice.