Global climate change and habitat fragmentation represent two of the greatest threats to biodiversity and ecological processes worldwide. It is predicted that anthropogenic induced climate change could represent a key factor for extinctions in the near future, considering that the Earth is set to become warmer than at any period in the past 40 million years. Habitat fragmentation and isolation pose a number of challenges for the fauna inhabiting degraded areas, including lack of dispersal opportunities leading to inbreeding resulting in a loss of genetic diversity, reduced reproductive fitness; increases in vulnerability to predation, hunting, and disease, and an inability to deal with or respond to environmental changes and/or disease. Madagascar, the fourth largest island in the world, is home to unprecedented levels of endemism, including over 100 species of lemur. The island has undergone a range of historical and contemporary landscape transformations, both natural and anthropogenic. These landscape transformations combined with additional human-induced disturbances, such as the illegal pet and bushmeat trades, have had devastating effects on the island’s extant primate populations. Thus, Madagascar’s lemurs have been deemed the most endangered group of mammals and now represent the highest primate conservation priority in the world. The ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta) is endemic to the southern regions of the island and occupies an array of habitats. L. catta is known for its remarkable behavioral and ecological flexibility, which contributes to its ability to exist in a mostly fragmented landscape. While this species represents one of the most well studied Malagasy strepsirhines, there has been a paucity of research regarding the population and conservation genetics of this endangered species. The goal of my dissertation was to examine the influence of habitat fragmentation and isolation on the genetic diversity and population structuring of this flagship species in three populations living in the central highlands of Madagascar: Anja Reserve, Sakaviro, and Tsaranoro Valley. Non-invasive fecal samples from 30 individual lemurs were collected from three fragmented forests and genotyped at six polymorphic microsatellite loci. Population genetic analyses were examined via GenAlEx software and revealed a moderate level genetic diversity. Genetic differentiation (FST) among the three fragmented populations ranged from 0.05-0.11. These data suggest that the L. catta populations within south-central Madagascar have not yet lost significant genetic variation. To examine past and recent demographic declines or genetic bottlenecks, I employed three approaches, including mode-shift and M-Ratio tests, as well as a test to detect heterozygosity excess using three mutation models: the two-phase model (TPM), step-wise mutation model (SMM), and the infinite allele model (IAM). Results were equivocal depending on the test that was applied; however, a mode-shift was detected for Anja, signifying this population underwent a historical bottleneck. M-ratio tests revealed that all three populations suffered historical bottlenecks. A population bottleneck was indicated via heterozygosity excess under the IAM for both the Anja and Sakaviro populations. To understand the impact of natural (e.g., mountains) and anthropogenic disturbances (e.g., roads, habitat fragmentation) on male reproductive strategies (dispersal) and population structuring, I utilized both GenAlEx and STRUCTURE software. Population assignment analyses suffered from a likely ‘lack of signal’. Therefore, individuals were unable to be reliably assigned to their population of origin. Genetic population structure was ambiguous. These data suggest that that these three fragmented populations are not genetically differentiated enough for proper population assignment, or perhaps the sample is not robust enough for population assignment analyses to produce unequivocal results. My research represents the first population genetic data for ring-tailed lemurs within the central highlands, and thus, serves as a baseline for future investigations into the genetic health of these populations. These data support the suggestion that these three fragments represent areas in which concerted conservation efforts are necessary if genetic diversity is to be maintained and future demographic declines are to be prevented. My results are informative for the local community conservation associations working within south-central Madagascar and can now be applied to determine areas of conservation priority and where forest corridors will be the most beneficial for maintaining gene flow. The loss and fragmentation of habitat continues across Madagascar, including the central highlands; thus, all remaining L. catta populations should be considered a high conservation priority. If we are to safeguard the long-term viability of this species, continued conservation and research initiatives will be crucial. / Graduate / 0327 / 0369 / lemurgirl.clarke@gmail.com

<p>Anthropogenic effects on ecosystems have expanded in their scope and intensity, with significant consequences for global environmental, wildlife and human health. As human encroachment into wildlife habitat grows, habitat degradation and fragmentation intensify, leading to increased contact among wildlife, humans and domestic animals. Due to this increasing frequency of interaction, and the emergence of several high-profile diseases, global concern has grown over the risk of emerging infectious disease from zoonotic origins. </p><p>Due to Madagascar's rampant rate of human population growth and deforestation, its incredible species diversity, the widespread presence of domestic and invasive species, and its evolutionary isolation, it can be viewed as a high risk region for potential disease emergence. There is a need for assessment of the zoonotic and reverse zoonotic disease potential within this country. </p><p>To contribute to this assessment, consistent baseline health monitoring provides an effective tool for evaluating wildlife health and preparing for future disease occurrences. Limited, disconnected surveys of lemur health have occurred, yet there remained a need for more extensive, country-wide evaluations that also addresses invasive species, domestic animal and human health, as well shifting patterns of environmental and climatic change. </p><p>This research has investigated the connections among human, animal (both domestic and wildlife) and ecosystem health in Madagascar. I have examined current trends in anthropogenically-driven environmental change in Madagascar--including deforestation, illegal logging of precious hardwoods, mining, hunting, and agriculture--and evaluated how this change affects patterns of lemur, domestic animal and human health by evaluating a suite of health measures and parasite prevalence and richness. I have also examined how predicted global climate changes may influence the spatial patterns of lemur parasites and human infectious disease by assessing their shifts in distributions and geographic extent. </p><p>To assess the risk of disease transmission among lemur, domestic animal and human hosts, I have modeled the areas of geographic overlap among these parasites and their hosts and identified high-risk areas for disease emergence using geospatial analysis. This information can help to develop predictive statistical and spatial tools, which can inform both environmental management and public health planning. </p><p>Through this work, I have evaluated the severe loss of distribution that rosewood species have undergone, which highly qualifies them for international trade protection. We predicted areas of high risk for future logging, many of which occurred within protected areas in the biodiverse northeast. </p><p>Secondly, I have compiled the most comprehensive record of parasites of lemurs to date. Building upon the Prosimian Biomedical Survey Project data and the published literature, we have recorded 88 parasites that have been documented in lemurs. These are composed of helminths, bacteria, ectoparasites and protozoa. Of the 23 focal parasite species studied more in depth in this study, we noted high variability in prevalence measures for unique parasites at different sites. Parasite coinfection occurred quite commonly, with up to as many as 7 parasites concurrently. On average, lemur parasites tend to be less species-, genus-, or family-specific than other parasites across all primates. </p><p>Thirdly, I documented highly significant differences in health measures from two populations of Indri that exist under differing levels of anthropogenic pressure. Of note, the parasite richness, leukocyte count and differential, and nickel and cobalt levels were significantly higher in the more exposed population, while the total protein measures were significantly lower. These data suggest that the exposed population experiencing more anthropogenic pressure suffered from elevated health and nutritional stress. </p><p>Fourthly, I have documented strong correlations among environmental drivers (temperature, precipitation and landscape-scale features) and lemur parasite distributions. Striking shifts in their distributions are predicted to occur with projected climate change in Madagascar, including an expansion of helminth, virus and ectoparasite distributions, but a contraction of bacteria distributions due to warming and drying in the south. </p><p>Fifthly, I have examined 10 human and domestic animal parasites that hold great consequence for lemur, human and domestic animal health in Madagascar. I have similarly demonstrated strong correlations among environmental drivers (temperature, precipitation and landscape-scale features) and the distributions of these human parasites. Shifts in the distributions are also predicted to occur with projected climate change, including an expansion of helminth parasites, and a contraction of viruses and bacteria due to warming and drying in the south. I have identified areas of high risk for the transmission of parasites from human hosts to lemurs, as well as conversely from lemur hosts to humans. These risk indices will serve to highlight geographic areas at particular risk, and will also help to direct limited funds and staff to those areas most in need of attention. </p><p>Sixthly, I have demonstrated a need to train a growing cadre of One Health professionals from many different disciplines. I have offered several suggestions to integrate One Health training into graduate education, and have identified several geographic regions of potential to be a Center of One Health Excellence, of which the North Carolina Triangle area is one of great promise.</p> / Dissertation

Cette thèse souhaite apporter un éclairage géographique, tant spatial que scalaire, sur le phénomène contestataire singulier que constitue l'altermondialisation halieutique. Plus précisément, notre objectif consiste à démontrer en quoi ce mouvement social de soutien à la pêche artisanale engage une réappropriation socio-spatiale d'un processus de mondialisation halieutique profondément inégalitaire. Pour comprendre ces interactions, deux terrains halieutiques militants font plus particulièrement l'objet d'une analyse comparée : la pêche artisanale française et la pêche traditionnelle malgache. Il nous faut en premier lieu saisir le passage de la mondialisation à la globalisation halio-aquacole en retraçant les principales étapes géohistoriques de la mise en place d'un système-monde aquatique afin de mieux comprendre par la suite sa structuration contemporaine ainsi que ses dysfonctionnements spatiaux actuels. La mise en évidence de ses inégalités nous conduit alors à analyser les multiples dimensions spatiales de l'altermondialisation halieutique, ce qui revient à interroger les caractéristiques de ce mouvement contestataire, à savoir l'organisation de son système d'acteurs, ses stratégies ainsi que ses dynamiques. Pour finir, nous interrogeons conjointement les politiques de durabilité mises en oeuvre par ces deux systèmes halieutiques d'amont en aval de la filière halieutique. De cette confrontation entre échelles spatiales globalisantes et échelles localisées (territorialisantes), nous concluons sur la nécessité d'adopter une démarche résolument transcalaire et cosmopolitique dans la régulation de cette mondialisation halieutique.

La France s’implante à Mayotte en 1841, mais la ratification royale est attendue deux longues années par les autorités de Saint-Denis de la Réunion. Ces simples faits sont révélateurs de deux attitudes bien distinctes : celle de la métropole coloniale et celle de sa colonie insulaire isolée dans l’océan Indien. Les intérêts sont donc divergents : il importe de les recenser et de mesurer leur influence sur les politiques menées et les moyens accordés ou non. Durant plus d’un siècle, ces intérêts ont-ils connu des mutations, des modifications radicales ? La politique coloniale en a-t-elle été l’instigatrice ? Les projets novateurs souhaités pour Mayotte sont finalement tombés en désuétude après la conquête de Madagascar puis le rattachement de Mayotte et des Comores à la nouvelle colonie. La Grande Île présente de nombreux atouts : la vaste baie abritée de Diégo-Suarez, un hinterland au fort potentiel minier, agricole et industriel. Mayotte n’est plus que le chef-lieu d’une dépendance qui compte rarement dans les statistiques. Paris n’a qu’une vision monolithique de « Madagascar et dépendances », oubliant la souplesse du pragmatisme multiscalaire en fonction des évènements. Chaque île n’a pas vécu les évènements de la première moitié du XXè siècle de la même manière. Les deux Guerres mondiales ont affecté chaque île de façon singulière. Finalement Mayotte a traversé la période de colonisation comme un petit territoire dans un vaste empire, parfois distingué, mais souvent suivant la règle générale… tout en conservant quelques particularismes locaux. / France was established in Mayotte by 1841, but the King’s signature was waiting for two long years by colonial authorities of Saint-Denis de La Réunion. Those first events reveal two different colonial politics in one hand from central power in Paris and in the second hand from its old isolated colony in the Indian Ocean: island of la Réunion. Both have different interests, which must be well- defined. What kind of influence did they have on politics? Were they good lobbiists? During one century they may have been transformed. Was colonial policy was the instigator? The innovating projects hoped for by Mayotte finally passed into disuse when Madagascar’s island was colonized then, when Mayotte and the other Comoros island was administrated by the new establishment. The Great Island presented all the advantages researched: a large and natural protected bay in Diego Suarez, a wide hinterland with great mining potential, cultures and industries. Mayotte became the only chief town of a province which rarely appeared in statistics. Paris developed a monolithic perception of “Madagascar and Dependences”, forgetting to look through different scales with events. The first half of the twentieth century has been lived differently by each island. World War I and World War II were not similar at all from one island to another one.Maison de la Recherche 28 rue Serpente 75006 PARISBureau de la valorisation. 01 53 10 57 94www.paris-sorbonne.fr5/6Finally Mayotte crossed the colonial period as a small island in a wide empire, sometime emphasized, but often under the general rule….but always with specific characteristics.

Madagascar's freshwater crayfish, belonging to the endemic genus Astacoides, are harvested throughout their range in the eastern highlands of the country. They provide an important source of protein and revenue to local communities but there is concern that the harvest may be unsustainable. In this thesis I assess the sustainability of crayfish harvesting in and around Ranomafana National Park, an area well known for its reliance on crayfish harvesting. Six taxa (belonging to four described species) are found in the Ranomafana area. Most families in villages with access to forest carry out some harvesting for subsistence use. Due to variation in local taboos (fady) and in access to forest, commercial crayfish harvesting is very important in only three of the 27 villages I visited. However, in these villages crayfish revenue is very important, particularly to poorer households. One species, Astacoides granulimanus, dominates the harvest: more than 95% of crayfish caught in the harvesting village of Vohiparara are of this species. I used a mark-and-recapture study involving more than 26,000 A. granulimanus across 79 sites under a range of harvesting intensities to estimate demographic parameters (growth, fecundity and survival) and investigate density-dependent control of growth and fecundity. No evidence for density-dependent control of growth was found, but the density of large crayfish negatively influenced the proportion of females of a given size which reproduced. I investigated the sustainability of the harvest of A. granulimanus using two approaches: I) comparing population structure and density under varying harvesting intensity and II) using population models to investigate the forest area necessary to provide the observed annual harvest from one harvesting village and comparing that with the area available. The conclusions are encouraging as they suggest that the A. granulimanus harvest in the Ranomafana area may be sustainable under current conditions. Preliminary work suggests habitat loss may be a more immediate threat, so scarce conservation resources should perhaps be concentrated on reducing habitat loss rather than enforcing a ban on harvesting.

Large carnivores are in global decline, chiefly resultant of anthropogenic persecution, habitat reduction and disturbance. Fosas represent Madagascar's largest carnivore, occupying much of the island's forest. This thesis examines the threats of bushmeat hunting, retaliatory killing, habitat alteration and exotic species using sociological and remote-sensing methodologies. Habitat degradation was not associated with reduced fosa occupancy, indicating some resilience within large, contiguous forests. However, competition with exotic species (cats, dogs) was associated with reduced fosa occupancy and potential temporal shifts towards greater nocturnality. Poor households were more likely to consume protected species. Conversely, wealthier households consumed more fish and eel. This pattern is reflected in Malagasy reported taste preference to consume domesticated animals and certain legally hunted wild species. Protected areas were not associated with reduced protected species consumption. Fosas' predation was a major cause of rural poultry mortality. Predation was more likely to occur in deciduous forests, in the dry season, during the evening. Fosa predation, and lower education was associated with negative Malagasy attitudes. Wealthy households, and those that had experienced fosa predation were most likely to retaliatory kill a fosa. Strategies to safeguard fosas' long-term persistence should seek to improve domestic husbandry, build robust coops with the use of watchdogs, promote education, and reduce exotic species abundance.

Understanding women’s experiences of mangrove forest conservation in the Global South is important because mangrove forests are a crucial defense against climate change, and are also increasingly the targets of global climate change policies. The intervention of postcolonial feminist theory combined with feminist political ecology has the potential to bring forward women’s seldom-heard experiences of climate change in these valuable ecosystems. This work supports previous feminist political ecology scholarship focused on understanding women’s complicated relationships to the environment and the gendered effects of climate change policies, while challenging dominant conservation discourse around women as a monolithic group. This thesis focuses on women living in Madagascar’s largest mangrove, particularly under current mangrove reforestation efforts and emerging blue carbon climate change policies. This project explores how the women in this mangrove forest are situated along axes of power differently, the implications of social divisions for conservation, and the ways in which current mangrove conservation projects reproduce power relations in the mangrove by failing to recognize difference.

ABSTRACT Self-supply is widely reported across various contexts, filling gaps left by other forms of water supply provision. This research assesses low-cost household groundwater supply technologies in markets in developing country contexts of sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America, with a focus on the potential for improving Self-supply technology implementation and markets in sub-Saharan Africa. Specifically, a mature and unsubsidized Self-supply market for Pitcher Pump systems (suction pumps fitted onto hand-driven boreholes) is studied in an urban context in Madagascar, EMAS low-cost water supply technologies are assessed in Bolivia, and a technical comparison is completed with manual EMAS Pumps and family versions of the Rope Pump in Uganda. In Madagascar, locally manufactured Pitcher Pump systems are widely provided by the local private sector, enabling households to access shallow groundwater. This market has developed over several decades, reaching a level of maturity and scale, with 9000 of these systems estimated to be in use in the eastern port city of Tamatave. The market is supplied by more than 50 small businesses that manufacture and install the systems at lower cost (US$35-100) than a connection to the piped water supply system. Mixed methods are used to assess the performance of the Pitcher Pump systems and characteristics of the market. Discussion includes a description of the manufacturing process and sales network that supply Pitcher Pump systems, environmental health concerns related to water quality, pump performance and system management. The research additionally considers the potential of EMAS low-cost household water supply technologies in accelerating Self-supply in sub-Saharan Africa, and consists of a field assessment of EMAS groundwater supply systems (handpumps on manually-driven boreholes) and rainwater harvesting systems as used at the household level in Bolivia, focusing on user experiences and the medium/long-term sustainability of the pump (cost, functionality, etc.). The EMAS Pump is a low-cost manual water-lifting device appropriate for use at the household level. Developed in the 1980s, the EMAS Pump has been marketed extensively for local manufacture and use at the household level in Bolivia, and marketed to a lesser extent in other developing countries (mainly in South and Central America). The simple design of the EMAS Pump, using materials commonly found locally in developing countries, allows for it to be fabricated in many rural developing community contexts. Its capability for pumping from significant depths to heights above the pump head makes it quite versatile (e.g. for pumping to household tanks, reservoirs at higher elevations, or for installing multiple pumps on wells). A survey/inspection of 79 EMAS Pumps on household water supply systems in areas of three regions of Bolivia (La Paz, Santa Cruz and Beni regions) showed nearly all EMAS Pumps (78 out of 79) to be operational. 85% of these operational pumps were found to be functioning normally, including 72% that were reported to have been installed eleven or more years earlier. It is shown that rural households in Bolivia are able to maintain EMAS Pumps. The EMAS Pump can be installed and repaired by local technicians, and numerous examples were seen of small groups of local technicians that operate small businesses installing and repairing such systems. The cost of a new EMAS Pump was reported by users to be US$ 30-45. Maintenance and repair costs of the EMAS Pump were found to be reasonable, with pump valve replacement (the repair most commonly reported by users) costing an average of US$9 (materials and labor). The Rope Pump has some similar attributes to the EMAS Pump, in that it is can be made locally from materials commonly available in developing communities, it has a relatively low cost, and is simple to understand. The Rope Pump is well-known among international rural water supply professionals, and thus serves as a good baseline to compare the lesser-known EMAS Pump. A technical comparison completed in Uganda of the EMAS Pump and the Rope Pump considered performance (flow rates and energy expended, pumping from various depths), material costs, and requirements for local manufacture. The study concluded that, based on its relative low-cost (material costs ranging from 21-60% that of the family Rope Pump, dependent on depth and pumping pipe size), similar technical performance to the Rope Pump when pumping from a range of depths, and the minimal resources needed to construct it, the EMAS Pump has potential for success in household water supply systems in sub-Saharan Africa. Combined with the conclusion from the research in Bolivia, it is believed that there is considerable potential for the EMAS Pump as a low-cost option for Self-supply systems in sub-Saharan Africa. Recommendations for further research focus on: (1) improvements to the Pitcher Pump system (focusing on reducing risk of water contamination); (2) formative research to identify factors that have led to the sustainability of the Pitcher Pump market in eastern Madagascar, and (3) development of the Self-Supply Market in Madagascar beyond Pitcher Pump systems.

Madagascar, indépendant en 1960, est une République à qui manque cruellement de moyens financiers et humains. Cette situation l'a rendue dépendant des contextes géopolitiques mondiaux et des alliances qui en ont découlé. L'évolution de la Grande île reflète les grands bouleversements qui se sont déroulés dans le monde : la période néocoloniale, la période de la guerre froide, celle des ajustements structurels dans les années 1980 et enfin le monde multipolaire qui a débuté dans les années 1990. Un des grands défis échec des modèles de coopération successifs furent, le développement local, régional au bénéfice et avec l'implication des sociétés. Pour comprendre cette situation, la recherche d'une part restitue les divers environnements internationaux et nationaux et leurs responsabilités, d'autre part retrace les actions de la coopération au niveau des différentes collectivités territoriales malgaches entre 1993 et 2005. S'il en résulte une répartition assez homogène des activités de la coopération multi et bilatérale sur le territoire national avec des champs et des zones d'intervention spécifiques pour chaque coopération, la recherche de cet équilibre spatial est difficile malgré les efforts favorisant les démarches participatives impliquant la population, compte tenu de l'instabilité politique depuis l'avènement de la Troisième République. Cette situation met en évidence de nouveaux acteurs, une coopération transnationale, ONG et coopération décentralisée, qui concerne surtout le niveau local avec des actions traitant prioritairement des questions sociales et de l'urgence humanitaire, à travers des programmes à court terme. Actuellement, c'est la seule coopération qui est vraiment effective à cause des évènements politiques qui secouent Madagascar. Restent les inconnus au sujet des nouvelles formes de coopération sous-régionale, commerciales avec les Pays émergents qui ne sont aujourd'hui que des acteurs secondaires mais dont les perspectives de développement sont immenses.

La géographie des gemmes a beaucoup évolué au cours des deux dernières décennies. Les exploitations de pierres précieuses (rubis, saphirs, émeraudes) se sont développées rapidement dans les pays pauvres d'Afrique de l'Est. Cette thèse propose d'étudier le phénomène et de voir si les nouveaux pays producteurs de saphirs et de rubis peuvent s'appuyer sur cette ressource pour se développer. A Madagascar, cette question est très sensible car le pays abrite le plus gros gisement de saphir du monde. Dans la région d'Ilakaka, l'exploitation a commencé en 1998, provoquant la ruée de 100 000 personnes dans une région peu peuplée. La mine artisanale a balayé le système socio-spatial traditionnel. Les activités informelles se sont développées rapidement autour des marchés lucratifs et la région connaît un développement anarchique. Ce développement spontané est maintenant entravé et menacé par le désengagement de l'État. La corruption et la faiblesse de celui-ci brident le développement dans les régions gemmifères. Les pierres sont exportées " brutes " et les acteurs endogènes peinent à se structurer pour créer une industrie de transformation. Les filières asiatiques actuelles mettent en place des politiques qui limitent les marges de manoeuvre des nouveaux pays producteurs. Pour l'heure, ces derniers ne peuvent pas se reposer sur la communauté internationale pour faire émerger une nouvelle gouvernance mondiale plus favorable.