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There is an increasing interest in nanostructured and nanocomposite surface finishings for automotive and aerospace applications. The widespread applicability of these novel materials is based on their unique mechanical, physical, and chemical properties. An advantageous production method is the electrocodeposition (ECD) process from metal plating baths containing dispersed nanoparticles. By using this technique, a broad range of substrate sizes and shapes can be coated cost-effectively. However, the prediction of the amount as well the distribution of nanoparticles within the metal film fails frequently. There is no complete understanding of the particle incorporation mechanism. The goal of this research was to improve the fundamental understanding of the ECD mechanism. In order to identify the forces affecting the codeposition behavior of nanoparticles in a metal matrix, the effects of a variety of interrelated process parameters on the composite film formation have been investigated systematically. Nanocomposites containing metal and metal oxide nanoparticles in a nickel matrix have been prepared by means of ECD from two different types of nickel plating baths, an acidic sulfamate (pH 4.3) and an alkaline pyrophosphate bath (pH 9.5). The effect of deposition conditions on the ECD process was investigated utilizing two electrode configurations, viz. a parallel plate electrode (PPE) and impinging jet electrode (IJE) and different deposition techniques, viz. direct current (DC) deposition, both pulse plating (PP) and pulse-reverse plating (PRP). The surface charge and sedimentation behavior of the nanoparticles in these electrolytes were characterized by zeta potential and stability measurements. The surface charge, hydrodynamic diameter and colloidal stability of the nanoparticles in the nickel electrolytes were mainly affected by the composition and pH of the bath. The particles tend to form agglomerates in both nickel baths. Smaller agglomerates and an improved colloidal stability occurred in the case of the alkaline bath. Composites with a maximum particle content of either ~3.6 vol-% of 13 nm Al2O3 or ~10.4 vol-% of 21 nm TiO2 were obtained using a parallel plate electrode and DC deposition conditions. Both jet plating as well as pulse plating resulted in a distinct increase of the particle codeposition. A maximum incorporation of ~12 vol-% of 50 nm Al2O3 particles in a nickel matrix was achieved using an unsubmerged IJE system, while PP and PRP resulted in composites with particle contents up to 11 vol-% of 13 nm Al2O3. The particle incorporation increased with the particle content of the electrolyte for all deposition conditions studied. A beneficial effect on the amount of codeposited particles was found with decreasing average current density. The Al2O3 and TiO2 particles were found to be negatively charged in the alkaline pyrophosphate bath, and positively charged in the acidic sulfamate bath. It could be shown that negatively charged particles codeposited preferentially within the nickel matrix. The effect of PP and PRP conditions, e.g. pulse frequency, duty cycle and value of the peak current density, on the ECD of Ni-Al2O3 composites was studied using rectangular current pulses in the order of milliseconds. In general, low duty cycles and high pulse frequencies resulted in an enhanced particle codeposition. Using the unsubmerged IJE system, the effects of jet flow rate, particle loading and current density on the particle incorporation were studied. Referring to the experimental results from the ECD of 50 nm alumina with nickel using an IJE system, a kinetic model was developed. Therefore, the particle flux to the electrode was derived from an analysis of the total force acting on the particle in front of the electrode. The model took into account the convective diffusion of particles to the electrode surface, and the effect of gravitational and buoyancy forces on the particle flux. The gravitational force was found to be important for the ECD of 300 nm particles, but not for 50 nm particles. The effect of an external magnetic field on the ECD of Co or Fe3O4 nanoparticles in a nickel matrix has been studied for different current densities, particle contents of the electrolyte and magnetic flux density. The particle incorporation showed a distinct dependency on the orientation of an externally applied magnetic field. While the particle incorporation increased in a perpendicular field (perpendicular with regard to the electrode surface), it decreased in a parallel orientation. The influence of the magnetic field on the ECD of magnetic nanoparticles with nickel was explained by the interplay of Lorentz force and magnetophoretic force. The structure and the properties of the nickel matrix were significantly altered due to the codeposition of nanoparticles. The pure nickel deposits from the sulfamate bath exhibited a strong <100> texture, and those from the pyrophosphate bath a strong <110> preferred orientation. With increasing plating current density and particle incorporation, a variation in the crystallite size and a loss of texture was observed. High resolution TEM imaging proved a complete embedding of nanoparticles by the nickel matrix without any voids. In the case of both nickel baths, the Vickers microhardness showed a tendency to increase with the amount of particle incorporation. The enhanced hardness of the composite films was associated with modifications in the microstructure of the nickel matrix as well as with the nanoparticle incorporation. The wear resistance as examined by linear abrasion test increased with decreasing current density and due to the particle incorporation. Furthermore, the incorporation of magnetic nanoparticles resulted in a distinct increase of the magnetic hardness of the nickel matrix.

The aim of this work was to investigate the effects that a magnetic field can induce during the electrodeposition of Ni and Ni-Fe alloys. Special regard was given to mass transport controlled effects. Magnetic field effects on the nucleation and growth of ferromagnetic layers and on the properties of electrodeposited layers (like grain size, texture, morphology or roughness) were investigated. The influence of a magnetic field on the magnetic properties of Ni layers and on the composition of Ni-Fe alloys was also studied. Nucleation and growth of thin Ni layers on gold electrodes under a superimposed magnetic field were analysed in-situ with the Electrochemical Quartz Crystal Microbalance technique. Three theoretical models were chosen for characterizing the Ni nucleation: Scharifker-Hills (SH), Scharifker-Mostany (SM) and Heerman-Tarallo (HT). The AFM images proved that more nuclei appear in a magnetic field in the case that the Lorentz force and the natural convection act in the same direction. From all the models, the HT model gave the best agreement with the AFM results. When the Lorentz force and the natural convection act in the same direction, an increase of the Ni partial current with the magnetic field was obtained. When they act in opposite directions, the Ni current was influenced just at the beginning of deposition (first 10 seconds). At longer times, the magnetic field has no effect on the Ni current. However, the total current (jNi+jHER) decreases with the magnetic field. In the absence of a macroscopic MHD convection, the Ni current decreases with the magnetic field the first 10-15 seconds of deposition. On longer time scales no influence of the magnetic field could be noticed for this configuration. When the magnetic field was applied perpendicular to the electric current, an increase of the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) with the magnetic flux density was noticed. Hydrogen reduction is mass transport controlled. Therefore, the magnetic field will increase the limiting current of the HER. Optical microscopy images showed that the hydrogen bubbles were circular in the absence of the MHD convection and that they presented a tail when a Lorentz force was present. The direction of the tail depends on the net force induced by the natural and MHD convections. The interplay between the natural and MHD convections proved to be important during Ni-Fe alloy deposition, too. When the Lorentz force and the natural convection act in the same direction, an increase of the Fe content of the alloys with the magnetic field was observed. When the Lorentz force was perpendicular to the natural convection, no significant changes were observed in the composition of the layers. The alloy composition did not change with the magnetic field when the electric current was parallel to the magnetic field lines. Two surfactants were used in the case that Ni was electrodeposited from a sulfamate bath: SDS and sulfirol 8. The Ni layers obtained from a sulfamate bath with sulfirol 8 presented larger grains compared to the layers deposited from a bath free of surfactants. This increase of the grain size was attributed to the incorporation of the surfactant in the deposit. Coarser layers were obtained in a magnetic field (applied perpendicular to the electric current) when the electrodeposition was done from an electrolyte with surfactants. The number of grains increased with the magnetic field for the Ni layers electrodeposited from a bath free of surfactants and for a bath with SDS. As a consequence, the grain size decreased. In the case of the electrolyte with sulfirol 8, the number of grains decreased with the magnetic field, and their size increased. For the Ni-Fe alloys, which contained less than 10 at% Fe, the preferred crystalline orientation changes from (220), in the absence of a magnetic field, to (111), (when the magnetic field was applied perpendicular to the electric current). When the magnetic field lines were parallel to the electric current, both the (111) and (220) textures were preferred in almost the same proportion. As a general conclusion of this work it can be said that by choosing the right experimental condition, one can improve the morphology and the properties of the deposited layers by applying a magnetic field. At the same time, the mass transport processes can be influenced by a magnetic field.

Superconducting Nanowire Single Photon Detectors (SNSPDs) are a promising technology for detecting single photon emissions with high efficiency and low noise. This detector class has numerous applications in quantum optics, communication, and sensing. One typical design for these devices is the hairpin structure, in which a superconducting nanowire is patterned into a meandering shape. The combination of academic research and interest from the industry is boosting the development of hairpin SNSPD devices to achieve high detection efficiency while maintaining fast response time and low jitter, requiring optimization of the device geometry, materials properties, and sophisticated readout electronics. This thesis qualitatively enquires about different device geometries, varying turn designs and features. Moreover, proposing a promising experimental setup with the potential of being scaled up to simultaneously test numerous devices with a varying magnetic field, driving the hairpin SNSPDs to their detection limit, and enabling further quantitative studies to deepen the understanding of the underlying mechanisms currently hindering the SNSPDs. Analyzing the acquired data draws results regarding the critical current and dark counts trends. Furthermore, at low magnetic field strength, the enquired devices are found to have their critical current enhanced. Moreover, comparisons are drawn among similar design structures. Furthermore, a discussion on manufacturing defects detrimental to the SNSPD performance is initiated. Finally, further studies on this topic adopting the presented method are encouraged to acquire additional quantitative results to be compared with theoretical models describing the thin superconducting structures. / Superconducting Nanowire Single Photon Detectors (SNSPD) är en lovande teknik för att detektera utsläpp av enstaka fotoner med hög effektivitet och lågt brus. Denna detektorkategori har många tillämpningar inom kvantoptik, kommunikation och avkänning. En typisk konstruktion för dessa anordningar är hairpin-strukturen, där en supraledande nanotråd är mönstrad i en slingrande form. Kombinationen av akademisk forskning och intresse från industrin ökar utvecklingen av hairpin-SNSPD-enheter för att uppnå hög detektionseffektivitet med bibehållen snabb responstid och låg jitter, vilket kräver optimering av enhetens geometri, materialegenskaper och sofistikerad avläsningselektronik. I denna avhandling undersöks kvalitativt olika anordningsgeometrier, varierande vridningsdesign och funktioner. Dessutom föreslås en lovande experimentell uppställning med potential att skalas upp för att samtidigt testa många anordningar med ett varierande magnetfält, vilket driver hairpin-SNSPD:erna till sin detektionsgräns och möjliggör ytterligare kvantitativa studier för att fördjupa förståelsen av de underliggande mekanismer som för närvarande hindrar SNSPD:erna. Analysen av de insamlade uppgifterna ger resultat när det gäller den kritiska strömmen och trenderna för mörkertalet. Dessutom visar sig de undersökta enheterna ha en ökad kritisk strömstyrka vid låg magnetfältsstyrka. Dessutom görs jämförelser mellan liknande konstruktionsstrukturer. Dessutom inleds en diskussion om tillverkningsfel som är skadliga för SNSPD:s prestanda. Slutligen uppmuntras ytterligare studier i detta ämne med den presenterade metoden för att få ytterligare kvantitativa resultat som kan jämföras med teoretiska modeller som beskriver tunna supraledande strukturer.

本論文では，鉄損算出精度向上を目的としたプレイモデルによるヒステリシス特性を考慮した磁界解析の実用化に向けて，ヒステリシスモデルのモデリング精度向上，計算機の記憶容量低減，有限要素磁界解析の計算時間削減に関する手法を提案した．さらに，ヒステリシス特性の考慮の有無が解析結果に与える影響を検討し，提案したヒステリシス特性を考慮した有限要素磁界解析の実用性を明らかにした． / In order to achieve the highly accurate analysis of an iron loss for electric machines, this paper proposes finite element magnetic field analyses taking account of the hysteretic property by using the play model. As a consequence, it is verified that the proposed method can accurately estimate an iron loss of a magnetic materials and decrease computational costs. Furthermore, this paper investigates the influence of the hysteretic property in finite element magnetic field analyses to demonstrate its effectiveness. / 博士(工学) / Doctor of Philosophy in Engineering / 同志社大学 / Doshisha University

Current controls the motion of a manipulator. The manipulators at ABB are powered by a three-phase alternating current system where shunt resistors are utilised to measure the current to the motors. Magnetic field sensors are instead investigated to eliminate issues with power losses, the number of components and the cost of the shunt resistors. Since current produces a magnetic field, it can be measured without contact using a magnetic field sensor. However, employing non-contact magnetic field sensors in three-phase implementations introduces problems with stray magnetic fields due to the three traces being in close proximity to each other. This magnetic crosstalk will influence the sensors, hence the current measurement for each trace. In this thesis separating this influence of the magnetic fields is done through a software approach. Initially, two magnetic field sensors, a tunnel magnetoresistance sensor and a Fluxgate sensor, were tested and evaluated to gain knowledge and understanding. From the different tests, it was decided to continue with the Fluxgate sensor. Further, a partial least-squares regression was constructed to separate the magnetic field and predict the current in each trace from the Fluxgate sensor output. From a simulation created, the current could be predicted with an error of approximately 1 nA, meaning less than 0.1% when considering a simulated linear model of the Fluxgate sensor.

Les décharges Sparks sont des décharges électriques transitoires avec une courte durée de vie. Par rapport à son initiation en milieu gazeux, l’initiation de ce type de décharges dans un liquide diélectrique induit de nouveaux phénomènes physico-chimiques dans le plasma et aux interfaces plasma-liquide et plasma-électrodes. Depuis une vingtaine d’années, la recherche scientifique exploite les propriétés de ces décharges pour des applications diverses : dépollution de liquide, synthèse de nanoparticules, usinage par électro-érosion, etc. Dans ce contexte, ce mémoire a pour objectif d’apporter une meilleure compréhension de la physique des décharges Sparks dans les liquides diélectriques. Les décharges dans les liquides se caractérisent par un comportement stochastique fort. Des études statistiques d’un nombre important de décharges sur les caractéristiques électriques ont été effectuées en fonction de différents paramètres. Ces paramètres sont la distance inter-électrodes, la nature des électrodes ainsi que la polarité de la tension appliquée. L’acquisition des courbes courant-tension de chaque décharge permet de déterminer ses propriétés électriques, soient la tension de claquage, le courant de la décharge, le délai de claquage, la charge injectée, la probabilité de claquage, etc. L’influence d’un champ magnétique externe, en particulier son orientation par rapport à l’axe des électrodes, sur les caractéristiques de la décharge a ensuite été explorée. L’étude des interactions plasma-électrode en fonction de l’orientation du champ magnétique a été réalisée en analysant des images de la dispersion des impacts créés par les décharges sur la contre-électrode et de l’érosion de la pointe. De plus, nous avons démontré que la nature du matériau des électrodes, en particulier ses propriétés magnétiques, influe grandement le taux d’érosion de celles-ci. Les résultats rapportés dans ce mémoire contribueront non seulement à l’avancement de la physique des décharges dans les liquides, mais aussi au développement / optimisation des applications dans des différents domaines technologiques. / Spark discharges are transient electric discharges with a short lifetime. Compared to its initiation in a gaseous medium, the initiation of this type of discharges in a dielectric liquid induces new physico-chemical phenomena in the plasma and at the plasma-liquid and plasma-electrode interfaces. For about twenty years, scientific research has been exploiting the properties of these discharges for various applications: liquid depollution, nanoparticle synthesis, electro-erosion machining, etc. In this context, this thesis aims to provide a better understanding of the physics of Sparks discharges in dielectric liquids. Discharges in liquids are characterized by a strong stochastic behavior. Statistical studies of a large number of discharges on the electrical characteristics have been performed as a function of different parameters. These parameters are the inter-electrode distance, the nature of the electrodes and the polarity of the applied voltage. The acquisition of the current-voltage curves of each discharge allows to determine its electrical properties, i.e. the breakdown voltage, the discharge current, the breakdown delay, the injected charge, the breakdown probability, etc. The influence of an external magnetic field, in particular its orientation relative to the axis of the electrodes, on the characteristics of the discharge was then explored. The study of the plasma-electrode interactions as a function of the magnetic field orientation was performed by analyzing images of the dispersion of the impacts created by the discharges on the counter-electrode and the erosion of the tip. Furthermore, we have shown that the nature of the electrode material, in particular its magnetic properties, greatly influences the rate of electrode erosion. The results reported in this thesis will contribute not only to the advancement of the physics of discharges in liquids, but also to the development / optimization of applications in different technological fields.

Anti-ferromagnetic interlayer exchange coupling between iron layers in Fe/MgO superlatices have recently been of interest among researchers for its potential application in 3D memory storage in computers (hard drives) and in the research field of spintronics. Thinfilms and bi-layers between the 10-100 ångström range in thicknesses were analyzed for its resistive properties during different conditions. Both mono-layers and superlatices were experimented with.The resistivity of the films was measured with both the four-probe method and the Van der Pauw method. Because of mechanical limitations with respect to the direction of the external magnetic field, the Van der Pauw method had to be used for the superlattice measurements. The collected data from all the measurments of the superlattice suggest that the electric current is not only passing the capping layer of the lattice but did not however show any sign of resisitive properties changing with changing magnetic profile. The resistivity of thesuperlattice was similar to that of the resistivity calculated from data when the external magnetic field was off. The results from this study show for the first time that it is possible to measure the electronic transport within an Fe/MgO superlattice which provides a basis for futher investigations.

As the solar wind reaches Mercury it interacts with the planet’s magnetic field slowing down, forming a bow shock in front of the planet and diverting the flow around it. Along with the solar wind comes the interplanetary magnetic field, an extension of the sun’s magnetic field. The interaction between the bow shock and the interplanetary magnetic field impacts the behaviour of the plasma both up- and downstream of the bow shock. An important factor is the angle between the normal to the bow shock surface and the interplanetary magnetic field, θBN. The angle can be divided into two categories: quasi-parallel for when θBN < 45° and quasi-perpendicular for θBN > 45°. It is expected for a quasi-parallel configuration to have stronger fluctuations in both the solar wind upstream of the bow shock and in the magnetosheath downstream caused by reflected particles backstreaming into the solar wind. Quasi-perpendicular configurations are expected to have less fluctuations in both regions due to fewer solar wind particles being reflected back. In this thesis this connection is investigated at the bow shock at Mercury using magnetic field data from the MESSENGER mission. By looking at the data when the spacecraft travels through the thin bow shock the local θBN angle can be calculated. The fluctuation level is then calculated as the standard deviation of the magnetic field in a 30 second period upstream and downstream of the crossing. The results found are unexpected as the correlation between θBN and the fluctuation levels are weaker and more uniformly distributed than expected compared to similar studies conducted at Earth using the Cluster satellites. This is most likely due to the smaller spatial scale of the Hermean system: the structures perpendicular to the interplanetary magnetic field of upstream activity, such as SLAMS, cover a greater proportion of the bow shock than at Earth allowing them to extend over into neighbouring regions of different θBN values, giving a more uniform distribution of the fluctuation levels. / När solvinden når Merkurius växelverkar den med planetens magnetfält och solvinden saktas ned och avledes till att flöda kring planeten. Då solvinden decelereras formas en chock framför planeten, bogchocken. Tillsammans med solvinden kommer det interplanetära magnetfältet, som är en förlängning av solens magnetfält. Växelverkan mellan bogchocken och det interplanetära magnetfältet påverkar plasmat både upp- och nedströms från bogchocken. En viktigt faktor är vinkeln mellan normalen till bogchocken och det interplanetära magnetfältet, θBN . Bogchocken kan delas in i två kategorier: kvasi-parallell då θBN < 45° och kvasi-vinkelrät då θBN > 45°. Vid kvasi-parallella förhållanden förväntas starkare fluktuationer i magnetfältet både uppströms i solvinden och nedströms i magnetskiktet, orsakat av reflekterade partiklar som färdas in i den inkommande solvinden. Kvasi-vinkelräta förhållanden förväntas ha mindre fluktuationer då färre partiklar reflekteras. I den här uppsatsen undersöks kopplingen vid Merkurius bogchock med data från rymdsonden MESSENGER. Genom att använda data då rymdsonden färdas igenom den tunna bogchocken kan det lokala värdet på θBN uträknas. Fluktuationsnivåerna räknas ut som standardavvikelsen av magnetfältet under en 30 sekundersperiod uppströms och nedströms från korsningen. Resultaten är ej som förväntade då kopplingen mellan θBN och fluktuationsnivån är mycket svagare och jämnt fördelade än förväntat, baserat på resultat från jorden från Cluster-satelliterna. Den mest troliga förklaringen är att Merkurius och dess bogchock är mindre än jordens: de strukturerna som är vinkelräta till det interplanetära magnetfältet hos uppströmsfenomen, t.ex SLAMS, täcker då en större proportion av bogchocken än vid jorden vilket tillåter dem att sträcka sig in i närliggande regioner med annorlunda θBN värden, vilket ger en mer jämn utbredning av fluktuationsnivåerna.

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