Magnetism in a solid | dia, para, ferro, or of other forms | originates majorly from its electrons; one could, infact, ignore the nuclear contribution. There are two types of electrons in a solid: bound, and free (also called itinerant). It is interesting to note that although several experimental techniques exist that measure the total magnetization/ susceptibility of a solid, no experiment directly probes the individual magnetic contributions from the bound and the itinerant electrons. In the past couple of decades, owing to the advent of sophisticated fabrication facilities, certain man-made, (ferro)magnetic materials have come into existence whose carrier concentrations can be tuned extrinsically: doped semiconductors like DMS (diluted magnetic semiconductors) and hexaborides are two such examples. However, whether the (ferro) magnetism in these materials originate from their itinerant carriers is still an open question. A conclusive answer to this question is eagerly awaited by the scientific community; the answer is not only supposed to solve debates related to the physics of ferromagnetism, but, also, should lend a helping hand in selecting right materials to build devices for upcoming exotic technologies such as Spintronics. A novel experimental technique is proposed in this work that directly measures the itinerant carrier magnetism of a solid. The technique is practically demonstrated on the bulk semiconductor: n-type GaAs. A Landau-Peierls itinerant (dia)magnetic susceptibility as low as 1 10 8 cm 3/mol | which is 10 3 times smaller than the magnetic background stemming from the bound electrons in the GaAs host lattice, and 10 times lower than the sensitivity limit of the SQUID | was clearly, and reproducibly detected from samples having carrier concentrations as low as 5 10 15 cm 3. The technique relies on measurements with MIS capacitors fabricated out of the given semiconductor. Unfortunately, as an artifact, such MIS fabrication processes unintentionally, but unavoidably, introduce certain energy levels in the semiconductor band-gap that unwantedly communicate with its bands by trapping and releasing carriers. Such traps lie along the interface of the semiconductor and the oxide. Though clear signals, which match with theoretically estimated signals within acceptable accuracy, have been measured from the itinerant electrons in GaAs, this work demonstrates theoretical calculations showing that the signals decrease in magnitude owing to the presence of such interface traps. Quantifying this decrement comes as an added advantage of this work, because such measurements can then directly probe the MIS interface and find the concentration of the interface traps (Dit) more accurately and precisely than what is done at present. Thus, the experimental technique this work proposes can also probe a given MIS interface, using time-varying magnetic fields, and reveal a more accurate and precise measure of Dit. Otherwise, the existing techniques for measuring Dit su er from imprecision caused by several theoretical assumptions. A more general technique which can extract Dit accurately and precisely, without needing to know the particular physical model that the interface traps follow for a given MIS capacitor, is what one requires at present, to give CMOS technology the direction and impetus it needs to cross-over to the non-Silicon territory. Such a technique is theoretically developed in this work. How a magnetic field a effects the MIS Energy Band Diagram is also derived in the process. The technique that is developed and demonstrated in this thesis, capable of directly probing both the itinerant magnetism and the MIS interface of a given semiconductor, depends on successfully measuring a very small voltage drop across a MIS capacitor when the latter is externally subjected to a high, time-varying magnetic field. This voltage signal originates because the semiconductor's electronic density of states depends on the magnetic field, thus rendering the semiconductor's electron chemical potential, i.e. the Fermi level, magnetic field dependent. The idea of detecting such magnetic field dependence of electron chemical potential was theoretically proposed more than five decades back, but an experimental detection of the phenomenon, in any bulk (i.e. three dimensional) solid, had remained elusive despite numerous trials. Virtually, the topic had been `dead' for the past couple of decades with very few reports (of trials) getting published on it. The primary reason behind such a failure is an interesting spurious effect that arises and overshadows the signal otherwise coming from the magnetic shift of the electron chemical potential. This is the spurious Hall voltage caused by the time-varying magnetic field and the eddy current it induces in the semiconductor following Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction. Unless this Hall voltage can be reduced below a threshold, there is no hope of successfully measuring the sample signal. In this work, we have discussed about this spurious effect in details and have given experimental recipes to avoid it from interfering with the data. Infact the data we publish for n-GaAs is free from any such spurious effects. From that viewpoint, this work becomes the first to report the experimental detection of the magnetic field dependence of a Fermi level in any bulk solid. A common pulse magnet capable of producing high magnetic field pulses, lasting for only some tens of milliseconds, was built and used for the purpose of this work. For certain samples other than GaAs, however, the spurious Hall voltage may be larger and the proposed technique may fail as one may not be able to rule out the spurious effect with the simple recipe demonstrated here for GaAs. In such a case, measurements are encouraged, instead, in a special magnet uniquely developed to rule out the Hall voltage. This magnet was constructed in-house, and can sit on a table-top and generate magnetic fields as high as a few Teslas that can, further, be `temporally shaped' by the user. Such a class of pulse magnets whose pulse waveforms can be programmed over time are called controlled waveform magnets (CWMs) and the work presented in this thesis also demonstrates the construction and calibration of such a CWM.

La Résonance Quadrupolaire Nucléaire (RQN) est une technique spectroscopique appliquée à l’état solide et qui ne nécessite aucun champ magnétique statique contrairement à la Résonance Magnétique Nucléaire (RMN). Elle permet de détecter, les molécules qui contiennent un noyau quadrupolaire (tel que l'azote-14). La RQN de l’azote-14 suscite un intérêt particulier car elle s'avère utile dans la détection de drogues et d’explosifs, qui contiennent, pour la plupart, des molécules azotées. Cette thèse porte en premier lieu sur l’amélioration de la qualité spectrale en résonance quadrupolaire (RQN) de l’azote-14. Ainsi, nous nous sommes préoccupés des signaux transitoires (ringing) qui suivent l’impulsion radiofréquence (rf) et qui masquent en partie le signal RQN. Nous avons d’abord montré, par une étude théorique et expérimentale, que les mesures à basse puissance (< 3Watts) étaient possibles, ce qui nous a permis de diminuer l’amplitude du ringing. De plus, grâce à ce mode de fonctionnement (basse puissance), nous avons pu proposer un circuit original de commutation du facteur de qualité (Q-switch) basé sur un commutateur rf CMOS et qui a permis de diminuer la durée du ringing. La seconde partie traite de l’influence d’un champ magnétique statique faible amplitude et des divers paramètres expérimentaux en RQN de l’azote-14. Dans le cas où le tenseur de gradient de champ électrique est de symétrie axiale, nous avons observé des élargissements, voire des doublets Zeeman. En revanche, dans le cas général (absence de symetrie), nous avons mis en évidence la possibilité définir le tenseur de gradient de champ électrique à partir de la forme de raie d’une seule transition au lieu de deux transitions (sans champ magnétique statique). Ce dernier résultat pourrait permettre de diminuer de moitié le temps nécessaire à la caractérisation d’une nouvelle molécule azotée. / Nuclear quadrupole resonance (NQR) is a solid-state spectroscopic technique which doesn't require a static magnetic field in contrast to Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR). It is used to detect molecules containing quadrupole nuclei (such as nitrogen-14). Nitrogen-14 quadrupole resonance is of particular interest because it is useful in the detection of drugs and explosives, which contain mostly of nitrogen molecules. In this thesis we have primarily focused on improving the spectral quality in nitrogen-14 quadrupole resonance (NQR) . Thus, we were concerned with the transient signals ( ringing ) following the radiofrequency (rf) pulse and which partly overwhelm the NQR signal. First, we demonstrated by theoretical and experimental study that low power measurements (< 3Watts ) were possible, allowing us to reduce the ringing amplitude. In addition, through this mode ( low power ), we have proposed an original quality factor switching circuit (Q -switch ) based on rf CMOS switch and which has reduced the ringing duration. The second part deals with the effect of a weak static magnetic field and various experimental parameters in nitrogen-14 quadrupole resonance. In the case of an axially symmetric electric field gradient tensor, we observed broadening or Zeeman doublets. By contrast, in the general case (no symmetry), we demonstrated the possibility to define the electric field gradient tensor from the line shape of a single transition instead of two transitions ( without static magnetic field ). This result reduces by half the time required for the characterization of a new nitrogen molecule.

Les résultats présentés dans cette thèse portent sur la construction et la simulation numérique de modèles théoriques de plasmas en présence d'une paroi absorbante. Ces modèles se basent sur des systèmes de Vlasov-Poisson ou Vlasov-Ampère à deux espèces en présence de conditions limites. Les solutions stationnaires recherchées vérifient l'équilibre des flux de charges dans la direction perpendiculaire à la paroi. Cette propriété s'appelle l'ambipolarité. A travers l'étude d'une équation de Poisson non linéaire, on montre le caractère bien posé d'un système de Vlasov-Poisson stationnaire 1d-1v pour lequel on détermine des distributions de particules entrantes et un potential au mur qui induisent l'ambipolarité et une densité de charge positive. On donne également une estimation de la taille de la couche limite au mur. Ces résultats sont illustrés numériquement. On prouve ensuite la stabilité linéaire des solutions stationnaires électroniques pour un modèle de Vlasov-Ampère instationnaire. Enfin, on étudie un modèle de Vlasov-Poisson stationnaire 1d-3v en présence d'un champ magnétique constant et parallèle à la paroi. On détermine les distributions de particules entrantes et un potentiel au mur qui induisent l'ambipolarité. On étudie une équation de Poisson non linéaire associée au modèle à l'aide d'une fonctionnelle non linéaire d'énergie qui admet des minimiseurs. On établit des bornes de paramètres à l'intérieur desquelles notre modèle s'applique et on propose une interprétation des résultats. / This thesis focuses on the construction and the numerical simulation theoretical models of plasmas in interaction with an absorbing wall. These models are based on two species Vlasov-Poisson or Vlasov-Ampère systems in the presence of boundary conditions. The expected stationary solutions must verify the balance of the flux of charges in the orthogonal direction to the wall. This feature is called the ambipolarity.Through the study of a non linear Poisson equation, we prove the well-posedness of 1d-1v stationary Vlasov-Poisson system, for which we determine incoming particles distributions and a wall potential that induces the ambipolarity as well as a non negative charge density hold. We also give a quantitative estimates of the thickness of the boundary layer that develops at the wall. These results are illustrated numerically. We prove the linear stability of the electronic stationary solution for a non-stationary Vlasov-Ampère system. Finally, we study a 1d-3v stationary Vlasov-Poisson system in the presence of a constant and parallel to the wall magnetic field . We determine incoming particles distributions and a wall potential so that the ambipolarity holds. We study a non linear Poisson equation through a non linear functional energy that admits minimizers. We established some bounds on the numerical parameters inside which, our model is relevant and we propose an interpretation of the results.

Une impulsion laser intense se propageant dans un plasma sous-dense (ne<<nc) déplace les électrons sur son passage et crée une onde de sillage à même d'accélérer des électrons. Lorsque l'impulsion est très intense (I₀> 10¹⁸ W.cm⁻²) et de durée très courte (τ₀< 100 fs), , on atteint le régime de la bulle. Les champs électriques dans ces bulles, de l’ordre de 100 GV/m, peuvent accélérer un faisceau d’électrons jusqu’au GeV sur des distances de l’ordre du centimètre. Dans ce régime, les électrons expulsés par la force pondéromotrice du laser forment une fine et dense couche à la surface d'une cavité d'ions restés immobiles. Les propriétés de ce régime sont examinées par l’intermédiaire d’un modèle analytique, que nous avons développé en nous inspirant du travail de W. Lu et S. Yi. En nous plaçant dans ce régime prometteur, nous avons étudié les mécanismes d’injection et de piégeage dans l'onde de sillage. Dans l’injection optique, les polarisations parallèles ou circulaires positives conduisent respectivement à une injection mettant en jeu du chauffage stochastique, ou à l’injection froide. Un paramètre de similarité est introduit, celui-ci permet de déterminer la méthode d’injection la plus appropriée pour maximiser la charge injectée. Enfin, le modèle analytique présenté en première partie est étendu afin d’étudier l’onde de sillage dans le régime de la bulle lorsqu’un champ magnétique longitudinal initial est appliqué au plasma. Lorsque le plasma est magnétisé deux phénomènes remarquables se manifestent, d'une part une ouverture apparaît à l'arrière de la bulle et d'autre part un mécanisme d'amplification du champ magnétique longitudinale est induit par la variation du flux magnétique. Les prédictions de notre modèle analytique sont confrontées aux résultats de simulations PIC 3D issues du code CALDER-Circ. La conséquence immédiate de la déformation de l'onde de sillage est la réduction, voire la suppression de l'auto-injection. L’application d’un champ magnétique longitudinal, combinée à un choix judicieux des paramètres laser-plasma, permet de réduire la dispersion en énergie des faisceaux d’électrons produits après injection optique. / An intense laser pulse propagating in an under dense plasma (ne<<nc) expels electrons and a wakefield is created which can accelerate efficiently electrons. When the laser pulse is very intense (I₀> 10¹⁸ W.cm⁻²) and short(τ₀< 100 fs), the bubble regime is reached. Within the bubble the electric field can exceed 100 GV/m and a trapped electron beam is accelerated to GeV energy with few centimetres of plasma.In this regime, the electrons expelled by the laser ponderomotive force are brought back and form a dense sheath layer. First, an analytic model was derived using W. Lu and S. Yi formalisms in order to investigate the properties of the wakefield in the blowout regime. In a second part, the trapping and injection mechanisms into the wakefield were studied. When the optical injection scheme is used, electrons may undergo stochastic heating or cold injection depending on the lasers’ polarisations. A similarity parameter was introduced to find out the most appropriate method to maximise the trapped charge. In a third part, our analytic model is extended to investigate the influence of an initially applied longitudinal magnetic field on the laser wakefield in the bubble regime. When the plasma is magnetized two remarkable phenomena occur. Firstly the bubble is opened at its rear, and secondly the longitudinal magnetic field is amplified - at the rear of the bubble - due to the azimuthal current induced by the variation of the magnetic flux. The predictions of our analytic model were shown to be in agreement with 3D PIC simulation results obtained with Calder-Circ. In most situations the wake shape is altered and self-injection can be reduced or even cancelled by the applied magnetic field. However, the application of a longitudinal magnetic field, combined with a careful choice of laser-plasma parameters, reduces the energy spread of the electron beam produced after optical injection.

Le trouble bipolaire est un trouble de l'humeur récurrent affectant de 1 à 3% de la population adulte à travers le monde et ayant une comorbidité importante avec une hausse du taux de suicides, l'abus de drogues et d'autres troubles médicaux. Ce trouble semble avoir plusieurs liens avec la schizophrénie et une vulnérabilité au trouble est souvent héréditaire dans une famille. Même si les causes biologiques n'ont pas encore été établies, de nombreuses anomalies dans le système limbique sous-cortical et la zone préfrontal ont été observés.Depuis sa découverte il y a plus d'un demi-siècle, une prise de sels de Lithium a été le traitement le plus fiable, mais l'action biochimique du Lithium sur le cerveau et le pourquoi de l'efficacité du traitement reste un mystère. Afin de pouvoir mieux comprendre cet effet, nous avons développé des séquences d'imagerie du Lithium-7 via résonance magnétique à 7 et 17 Tesla afin de pouvoir établir sa distribution et concentration cérébrale. Spécifiquement, j'ai travaillé sur le développement et la validation des méthodes d'acquisition, de reconstruction et de quantification de notre protocole. Ces méthodes ont d'abord été appliqués afin d'étudier la distribution cérébrale du Lithium sur des cerveaux de rats ex-vivo. Ces rats étés traités pendant 28 jours avec du Li2CO3, sacrifiés et leurs têtes fixés avec du PFA. En utilisant une antenne surfacique double canaux 1H/7Li fait maison, une acquisition 7Li Turbo Spin echo et une méthode de remplacement par fantôme pour la quantification, nous avons pu mesurer les cartes de concentration du Lithium. Les concentrations moyennes obtenus dans des régions d’intérêt prédéfinis ont été mesurés afin de les comparer avec les résultats obtenus par spectrométrie de masse.Après cette étude préclinique qui a permis de valider notre approche, un protocole similaire fut créé pour une étude in-vivo 7Li d'imagerie par résonance magnétique chez des patients bipolaires euthymiques sur un scanner 7T. Ces individus ont tous suivis un traitement régulier de Lithium. Pour cette étude, nous avons utilisé une séquence Steady State Free Precession à TE ultra-court et avec un échantillonnage du k-space non-cartésien. Un pipeline de quantification et d'analyse similaire à celle utilisé pour notre étude préclinique fut appliqué pour cette étude, avec l'ajout d'une étape de correction pour les inhomogénéités de B0. Après avoir fait une analyse statistique au niveau de toute la cohorte par régions d'intérêt, il a été observé que l'hippocampe gauche, une part majeur du système limbique associé au trouble bipolaire à de multiples occasions, possède systématiquement une haute concentration de Lithium. Finalement, la méthode de quantification fut modifiée en quantification bi-compartimentale afin de prendre en compte les différences dans les taux de relaxation du Lithium dans le CSF et dans le parenchyme du cerveau. Cette méthode fut appliqué afin de pouvoir quantifier le Lithium à 7T dans un sous-groupe des patients bipolaires et radicalement réduire les différences initialement observés entre les séquences SSFP et bSSFP. / Bipolar disorder is a chronic affective disorder affecting 1 to 3% of the adult population worldwide and has a high level of comorbidity with suicide rates, substance abuse and other harmful conditions. The disorder has possible ties to schizophrenia and has been observed to have a strong genetic component. The exact biological underpinnings have not been firmly established, however abnormalities in limbic subcortical and prefrontal areas have been observed.Ever since its discovery more than half a century ago, a daily intake of Lithium salts has arguably become the most reliable treatment of the disorder, despite us possessing little to no understanding of its biochemical action. In order to shed some light on the effect of Lithium in the brain, we have developed Lithium-7 MR imaging at 7 and 17 Tesla in order to assess its cerebral concentration and distribution. Specifically, I worked on developing and validating several acquisition, reconstruction and quantification methods dedicated to 7Li MRI and MRS. Those methods were first applied to study ex vivo the cerebral distribution of lithium in rats. These rats were pretreated for 28 days with Li2CO3, sacrificed and their head fixated with PFA. Using a home-made 1H/7Li radiofrequency surface coil and a 7Li Turbo Spin echo acquisition and a modified phantom replacement method for quantification, we were able to measure Li concentration maps. Regional Li concentration values were then compared with those obtained with mass spectrometry.After this preclinical proof-of-concept study, an in vivo 7Li MRI protocol was designed to map the cerebral Li concentration in euthymic bipolar subjects at 7T. These individuals all followed a regular lithium treatment. For this study, we chose to use an ultra-short echo-time Steady State Free Precession sequence with non-Cartesian k-space sampling. A quantification and analysis pipeline similar to the one used for our preclinical study was applied for this study, with the addition of a correction step for B0 inhomogeneities. After conducting a statistical analysis at the cohort level, it was assessed that the left hippocampus, a major part of the limbic system that has been associated with BD on multiple occasions, exhibited systematically a high level of lithium. Finally, I developed a quantification method accounting for the different relaxation times of 7Li in the CSF and in the brain parenchyma. This method was applied to image lithium at 7T in a subset of bipolar patients reducing drastically the differences initially observed between the SSFP and bSSFP sequences.

The purpose of this work is the design of a gaussmeter with a three-axis probe for magnetic field mapping and subsequent reconstruction of the image using magnetic impedance tomography. Commercially available gaussmeters have low bandwidth for these purposes, and signals cannot be measured in synchronous detection mode. The aim of the thesis is select the most suitable magnetic field sensors for the MIT purposes and to design the entire measuring device to meet the measurement requirements in the wider frequency band and synchronous detection. Attention will also be paid to designing a suitable mechanical design of the probe and the location of the sensors. The proposed device will be tested and evaluated for MIT purposes.

This thesis deals with electromagnetic compatibility of implantable electro-medical devices using in cardiology. The main aim of this thesis is detection of the resistance of implantable pacemakers (PM) and implantable cardioverter defibrillators (ICD) to the electromagnetic interference. In the first part of this thesis, a function of the heart, which is necessary for understanding of PM and ICD operation, is described. The function and construction of PM and ICD is detailed in the theoretical part as well. The next part is focused on the electromagnetic compatibility. The next part is description of the measurement method and the experimental arrangement used for practical experiments with electromagnetic resistance of PM and ICD.

The diploma thesis deals with the measurement of electromagnetic fields by the meter NARDA NBM 550. The aim of the paper is to introduce the possibilities of measurement of the electromagnetic field by this device, to study the feasibility of communication with computer, to create control program and to check its functionality. A description of the electromagnetic field properties is followed by the identification of the device main functions. Additionally, the operating program is described together with the draft of measuring workplace with its realization. The results of probationary measurements are presented in the end of the thesis.

The main goal of this thesis is a determination of an idle stray losses in induction machine and creation calculation program in MATLAB. The stray losses are caused especially by the eddy currents on the surface of stator and rotor, further by a pulsation of these currents owing to the periodical change of air-gap permeance, magnetic induction in stator and rotor teeth and a differential leakage. Value of stray losses are different of engine construction especially by it are scoring insulated, uninsulated, straight or slant.

This thesis describes the issue of PN junction of photovoltaic cells, photovoltaic effect physics, basic materials used in photovoltaic and their properties, important for the area of photovoltaic. It deals with the problems of magnetism focused on electromagnetic fields. Experimental facility for measuring the influence of magnetic field on the solar cells through the Helmholtz coils was constructed. This work also dealing with the influence of magnetic radiation on photovoltaic cells and the influence of electromagnetic waves on the volt-ampere characteristics of the photovoltaic cell.