The ionosphere carries a substantial portion of the electrical current flowing in Earth's space environment. Currents and electric fields in the ionosphere are generated through (1) the interaction of the solar wind with the magnetosphere, i.e. magnetic reconnection and (2) the collision of neutral molecules with ions leading to charged particle motions across the geomagnetic field, i.e. neutral wind dynamo. In this study we applied statistical and deep learning techniques to various datasets to investigate the driving influences of ionospheric electrodynamics at mid- and high-latitudes. In Chapter 2, we analyzed an interval on 12 September 2014 which provided a rare opportunity to examine dynamic variations in the dayside convection throat measured by the RISR-N radar as the IMF transitioned from strong By+ to strong Bz+. We found that the high-latitude plasma convection can have dual flow responses with different lag times to strong dynamic IMF conditions that involve IMF By rotation. We proposed a dual reconnection scenario, one poleward of the cusp and the other at the magnetopause nose, to explain the observed flow behavior. In Chapters 3 and 4, we investigated the driving influences of nightside subauroral convection. We developed new statistical models of nightside subauroral (52 - 60 degree) convection under quiet (Kp <= 2+) to moderately disturbed (Kp = 3) conditions using data from six mid-latitude SuperDARN radars across the continential United States. Our analysis suggests that the quiet-time subauroral flows are due to the combined effects of solar wind-magnetosphere coupling leading to penetration electric field and neutral wind dynamo with the ionospheric conductivity modulating their relative dominance. In Chapter 5, we examined the external drivers of magnetic substorms using machine learning. We presented the first deep learning based approach to directly predict the onset of a magnetic substorm. The model has been trained and tested on a comprehensive list of onsets compiled between 1997 and 2017 and achieves 72 +/- 2% precision and 77 +/- 4% recall rates. Our analysis revealed that the external factors, such as the solar wind and IMF, alone are not sufficient to forecast all substorms, and preconditioning of the magnetotail may be an important factor. / Doctor of Philosophy / The Earth's ionosphere, ranging from about 60 km to 1000 km in altitude, is an electrically conducting region of the upper atmosphere that exists primarily due to ionization by solar ultraviolet radiation. The Earth's magnetosphere is the region of space surrounding the Earth that is dominated by the Earth's magnetic field. The magnetosphere and ionosphere are tightly coupled to each other through the magnetic field lines which act as highly conductive wires. The sun constantly releases a stream of plasma (i.e., gases of ions and free electrons) known as the solar wind, which carries the solar magnetic field known as the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF). The solar wind interacts with the Earth's magnetosphere and ionosphere through a process called magnetic reconnection, which drives currents and electric fields in the coupled magnetosphere and ionosphere. The ionosphere carries a substantial portion of the electrical currents flowing in the Earth's space environment. The interaction of the ionospheric currents and electric fields with plasma and neutral particles is called ionospheric electrodynamics. In this study we utilized statistical and machine learning techniques to study ionospheric electrodynamics in three distinct regions. First, we studied the influence of duskward IMF on plasma convection in the polar region using measurements from the Resolute Bay Incoherent Scatter Radar – North (RISR-N). Specifically, we analyzed an interval on Sep. 12, 2014 when the RISR-N radar made measurements in the high latitude noon sector while the IMF turned from duskward to strongly northward. We found that the high latitude plasma convection can have flow responses with different lag times during strong IMF conditions that involve IMF By rotation. Such phenomena are rarely observed and are not predicted by the antiparallel or the component reconnection models applied to quasi‐static conditions. We propose a dual reconnection scenario, with reconnection occurring poleward of the cusp and also at the dayside subsolar point on the magnetopause, to explain the rarely observed flow behavior. Next, we used measurements from six mid-latitude Super Dual Auroral Radar Network (SuperDARN) radars distributed across the continental United States to investigate the driving influences of plasma convection in the subauroral region, which is equatorward of the region where aurora is normally observed. Previous studies have suggested that plasma motions in the subaruroral region were mainly due to the neutral winds blowing the ions, i.e. the neutral wind dynamo. However, our analysis suggests that subauroral plasma flows are due to the combined effects of solar wind-magnetosphere coupling and neutral wind dynamo with the ionospheric conductivity modulating their relative importance. Finally, we utilized the latest machine learning techniques to examine the external drivers (i.e., solar wind and IMF) of magnetic substorms, which is a physical phenomenon that occurs in the auroral region and causes explosive brightening of the aurora. We developed the first machine learning model that forecasts the onset of a magnetic substorm over the next one hour. The model has been trained and tested on a comprehensive list of onsets compiled between 1997 and 2017 and correctly identify substorm onset ~75% of the time. In contrast, an earlier prediction algorithm correctly identified only ~21% of the substorm onsets in the same dataset. Our analysis revealed that external factors alone are not sufficient to forecast all substorms, and preconditioning of the nightside magnetosphere may be an important factor.

In magnetised plasmas, magnetic reconnection is the process of magnetic field merging and recombination through which considerable amounts of magnetic energy may be converted into other forms of energy. Reconnection is a key mechanism for solar flares and coronal mass ejections in the solar atmosphere, it is believed to be an important source of heating of the solar corona, and it plays a major role in the acceleration of particles in the Earth's magnetotail. For reconnection to occur, the magnetic field must, in localised regions, be able to diffuse through the plasma. Ideal locations for diffusion to occur are electric current layers formed from rapidly changing magnetic fields in short space scales. In this thesis we consider the formation and nature of these current layers in magnetised plasmas. The study of current sheets and current layers in two, and more recently, three dimensions, has been a key field of research in the last decades. However, many of these studies do not take plasma pressure effects into consideration, and rather they consider models of current sheets where the magnetic forces sum to zero. More recently, others have started to consider models in which the plasma beta is non-zero, but they simply focus on the actual equilibrium state involving a current layer and do not consider how such an equilibrium may be achieved physically. In particular, they do not allow energy conversion between magnetic and internal energy of the plasma on their way to approaching the final equilibrium. In this thesis, we aim to describe the formation of equilibrium states involving current layers at both two and three dimensional magnetic null points, which are specific locations where the magnetic field vanishes. The different equilibria are obtained through the non-resistive dynamical evolution of perturbed hydromagnetic systems. The dynamic evolution relaxes via viscous damping, resulting in viscous heating. We have run a series of numerical experiments using LARE, a Lagrangian-remap code, that solves the full magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) equations with user controlled viscosity and resistivity. To allow strong current accumulations to be created in a static equilibrium, we set the resistivity to be zero and hence simply reach our equilibria by solving the ideal MHD equations. We first consider the relaxation of simple homogeneous straight magnetic fields embedded in a plasma, and determine the role of the coupling between magnetic and plasma forces, both analytically and numerically. Then, we study the formation of current accumulations at 2D magnetic X-points and at 3D magnetic nulls with spine-aligned and fan-aligned current. At both 2D X-points and 3D nulls with fan-aligned current, the current density becomes singular at the location of the null. It is impossible to be precisely achieve an exact singularity, and instead, we find a gradual continuous increase of the peak current over time, and small, highly localised forces acting to form the singularity. In the 2D case, we give a qualitative description of the field around the magnetic null using a singular function, which is found to vary within the different topological regions of the field. Also, the final equilibrium depends exponentially on the initial plasma pressure. In the 3D spine-aligned experiments, in contrast, the current density is mainly accumulated along and about the spine, but not at the null. In this case, we find that the plasma pressure does not play an important role in the final equilibrium. Our results show that current sheet formation (and presumably reconnection) around magnetic nulls is held back by non-zero plasma betas, although the value of the plasma pressure appears to be much less important for torsional reconnection. In future studies, we may consider a broader family of 3D nulls, comparing the results with the analytical calculations in 2D, and the relaxation of more complex scenarios such as 3D magnetic separators.

L'objectif de cette thèse est l'étude de la reconnexion magnétique dans les plasmas non-collisionels et relativistes. De tels plasmas sont présents dans divers objets astrophysiques (MQs, AGNs, GRBs...), où la reconnexion pourrait expliquer la production de particules et de radiation de haute énergie, un chauffage, ou des jets. Une compréhension fondamentale de la reconnexion n'est cependant toujours pas acquise, en particulier dans les plasmas relativistes ion-électron. Nous présentons d'abord les bases de la reconnexion magnétique. Nous démontrons des résultats particuliers à la physique des plasmas relativistes, concernant par exemple la distribution de Maxwell-Jüttner. Ensuite, nous réalisons une étude détaillée de l'outil numérique utilisé : les simulations particle-in-cell (PIC). Le fait que le plasma réel contienne beaucoup plus de particules que le plasma PIC a des conséquences importantes (collisionalité, relaxation, bruit) que nous décrivons. Enfin, nous étudions la reconnexion magnétique dans les plasmas ion-électron et relativistes à l'aide de simulations PIC. Nous soulignons des points spécifiques : loi d'Ohm (l'inertie de bulk dominante), zone de diffusion, taux de reconnexion (et sa normalisation relativiste). Les ions et les électrons produisent des lois de puissance, avec un index qui dépend de la vitesse d'Alfvén et de la magnétisation, et qui peut être plus dur que dans le cas des chocs non-collisionels. De plus, les ions peuvent avoir plus ou moins d'énergie que les électrons selon la valeur du champ guide. Ces résultats fournissent une base solide à des modèles d'objets astrophysiques qui, jusque là, supposaient a priori ces résultats. / The purpose of this thesis is to study magnetic reconnection in collisionless and relativistic plasmas. Such plasmas can be encountered in various astrophysical objects (microquasars, AGNs, GRBs...), where reconnection could explain high-energy particle and photon production, plasma heating, or transient large-scale outflows. However, a first principle understanding of reconnection is still lacking, especially in relativistic ion-electron plasmas. We first present the basis of reconnection physics. We derive results relevant to relativistic plasma physics, including properties of the Maxwell-Jüttner distribution. Then, we provide a detailed study of our numerical tool, particle-in-cell simulations (PIC). The fact that the real plasma contains far less particles than the PIC plasma has important consequences concerning relaxation times or noise, that we describe. Finally, we study relativistic reconnection in ion-electron plasmas with PIC simulations. We stress outstanding properties: Ohm's law (dominated by bulk inertia), structure of the diffusion zone, energy content of the outflows (thermally dominated), reconnection rate (and its relativistic normalization). Ions and electrons produce power law distributions, with indexes that depend on the inflow Alfvén speed and on the magnetization of the corresponding species. They can be harder than those produced by collisionless shocks. Also, ions can get more or less energy than the electrons, depending on the guide field strength. These results provide a solid ground for astrophysical models that, up to now, assumed with no prior justification the existence of such distributions or of such ion/electron energy repartition.

La reconnexion magnétique est un mécanisme fondamental de conversion d'énergie dans le plasma. Il se déroule dans les régions minces de fort courant appelées couches de courants, et produit le chauffage et l accélération des particules. Dans un milieu turbulent, la reconnexion magnétique a été observée dans de petites structures qui se forment dans celui-ci, et on a postulé que cela contribue de façon importante la dissipation de l'énergie turbulente l'échelle cinétique. Pour ce travail, nous examinons les données des satellites Custer dans la magnétogaine de la Terre, en aval du choc quasi-parallèle. La détection des couches de courant d'échelle ionique a été réalisé par l'application de la méthode de la variance partielle des incréments (PVI) pour des satellites multiples. Les proprietées des couches de courant observées étaient différentes pour des valeurs de l'indice PVI élevées(PV I > 3) et bas (PV I < 3). Nous avons observé une population distincte de haut indice PVI (> 3) structures qui représentaient ~ 20% du total. Ces couches de courant ont une rotation du champ magnétique élevée (> 90o). Afin d'estimer le chauffage local survenant dans ces couches de courant, une estimation de la température des électrons a été obtenue à haute résolution temporelle (125ms) parles distributions d'électrons partielles mesurées par Cluster. Cela a permis pour la première fois d'étudier le chauffage d'électrons localisés dans les couches de courant d'échelle ionique. L'augmentation observée de la température des électrons estimée dans les couches de courant aux PVI élevées suggèrent qu'ils sont importants pour le chauffage local d'électrons et de dissipation d'énergie. Nous avons également examiné les mesures l'intérieur de la région de diffusion d'une couche de courant o la reconnexion magnétique est en cours. Les observations simultanées par des satellites multiples permettent aussi d'étudier les distributions d'électrons et l'activité des ondes à des distances différentes de la ligne x. Des différences significatives ont été observées dans les populations d'électrons comme ils ont été chauffés en passant par la couche de courant. En particulier, les électrons sont chauffés dans la direction parallèle au champ magnétique proximité de la ligne x, alors qu'aucune variation significative n'a été observée dans la direction perpendiculaire. Cependant,la distribution est plus isotrope en aval de la ligne x, chauffées par des électrons dans la direction perpendiculaire. / Magnetic reconnection is a fundamental energy conversion process in plasma. It occurs in thin regions of strong current known as current sheets and results in particle heating and acceleration. In turbulence, which is ubiquitous in space plasma, magnetic reconnection has been observed to occur in small scale structures that form therein, and is thought to contribute to dissipation of turbulent energy at kinetic scales. For this work we examine data from the Cluster spacecraft in the Earth's magnetosheath, downstream of the quasi-parallel shock. The detection of ion-scale current sheets was performed by implementing the PartialVariance of Increments (PVI) method for multiple spacecraft. The properties of the observed current sheets were different for high (> 3) and low (< 3) values of the PVI index. We observed a distinct population of high PVI (> 3) structures that accounted for ~ 20% of the total. Those current sheets have high magneticshear (> 90degrees). In order to estimate the local heating occurring within those current sheets, a proxy of the electron temperature was obtained at high time resolution(125ms) from the partial distributions measured by Cluster. This allowed for the first time to study the localized electron heating within ion-scale currentsheets. The observed enhancement of the estimated electron temperature withinthe high PVI current sheets suggest that they are important for local electron heating and energy dissipation. We also examined measurements inside the diffusion region of a thin reconnecting current sheet. Multi-spacecraft observationsallow as to study electron distributions and wave activity at different distances from the x-line. Significant differences were observed in the electron populations as they were heated going through the current sheet. In particular electrons were heated in the direction parallel to the magnetic field in close proximity to thex-line, whereas no significant variation was observed in the perpendicular direction. However, the distribution was more isotropic downstream of the x-line with electrons heated in the perpendicular direction.

In this paper, we present the analysis of incoherent non-thermal radio emission from a sample of hot magnetic stars, ranging from early-B to early-A spectral type. Spanning a wide range of stellar parameters and wind properties, these stars display a commonality in their radio emission which presents new challenges to the wind scenario as originally conceived. It was thought that relativistic electrons, responsible for the radio emission, originate in current sheets formed, where the wind opens the magnetic field lines. However, the true mass-loss rates from the cooler stars are too small to explain the observed non-thermal broad-band radio spectra. Instead, we suggest the existence of a radiation belt located inside the inner magnetosphere, similar to that of Jupiter. Such a structure explains the overall indifference of the broad-band radio emissions on wind mass-loss rates. Further, correlating the radio luminosities from a larger sample of magnetic stars with their stellar parameters, the combined roles of rotation and magnetic properties have been empirically determined. Finally, our sample of early-type magnetic stars suggests a scaling relationship between the non-thermal radio luminosity and the electric voltage induced by the magnetosphere's co-rotation, which appears to hold for a broader range of stellar types with dipole-dominated magnetospheres (like the cases of the planet Jupiter and the ultracool dwarf stars and brown dwarfs). We conclude that well-ordered and stable rotating magnetospheres share a common physical mechanism for supporting the generation of non-thermal electrons.

Solar flares and eruptions are manifestations of violent releases of magnetic energy from the solar atmosphere. They are powered by magnetic reconnection, a mechanism in which magnetic field lines change their connectivities to reach a lower-energetic state. Theoretical predictions regarding the generalised three-dimensional magnetic reconnection are imposed by the standard flare model in 3D. In this work we present the results of five peer-reviewed publications in which we focused on different predicted aspects of magnetic reconnection in 3D. We analyse evolution and morphology of seven eruptive flares, primarily using observations of the Atmospheric Imaging Assembly onboard the Solar Dynamics Observatory. In the first publication, (Lörinčík et al., 2019a), we interpreted variations of velocities of slipping flare kernels using the mapping norm of field line connectivity simulated via the model. In Lörinčík et al. (2019b) we showed that the observed conversion of filament strands to flare loops is a signature of the 'ar-rf' reconnection geometry between erupting flux rope and overlying coronal arcades. In another observation (Dudík, Lörinčík et al. (2019)), all constituents of this geometry were successfully identified together with the constituents of the 'rr-rf' geometry between two...

<p>Active Galactic Nuclei (AGNs) are accreting supermassive black holes at the center of galaxies, known for rich spectral features and multi-time scale variability in their electromagnetic emission. The origin of the variability in AGN light curves can be either intrinsic, meaning related processes that take place inside the AGN system, or extrinsic, i.e., from the propagation of light towards Earth. In this dissertation, I present my work focusing on AGN variability. The first two works focus on the variability of blazars, a subclass of AGN with their relativistic jets beaming towards the observer. The first work combines 3D relativistic magnetohydrodynamics (RMHD) simulations with radiation transfer and shows the kink instability within the blazar jet can cause quasi-periodic radiation signatures within a typical period of time scales from weeks to months. The second work combines 2D Particle-in-Cell (PIC) simulations with radiation transfer and shows that isolated and merging plasmoids due to magnetic reconnection in a blazar environment could produce rich radiation and polarization signatures. The last work explores an extrinsic origin for AGN variability: a scenario in which interstellar medium (ISM) within our galaxy can refract light coming from AGNs. It suggests that plasma structures in ISM with an axisymmetric geometry can account for extreme scattering events (ESEs) in AGN observations. Future research directions include studies of the kink instability in jets that propagate in different environments and simulations of magnetic reconnection in 3D which may reveal additional particle acceleration mechanisms, which may play important role in the resulting radiation and polarization signatures. </p>

In this thesis examples of translationally invariant one-dimensional (1D) Vlasov-Maxwell (VM) equilibria are investigated. The 1D VM equilibrium equations are equivalent to the motion of a pseudoparticle in a conservative pseudopotential, with the pseudopotential being proportional to one of the diagonal components of the plasma pressure tensor. A necessary condition on the pseudopotential (plasma pressure) to allow for force-free 1D VM equilibria is formulated. It is shown that linear force-free 1D VM solutions correspond to the case where the pseudopotential is an attractive central potential. The pseudopotential for the force-free Harris sheet is found and a Fourier transform method is used to find the corresponding distribution function. The solution is extended to include a family of equilibria that describe the transition between the Harris sheet and the force-free Harris sheet. These equilibria are used in 2.5D particle-in-cell simulations of magnetic reconnection. The structure of the diffusion region is compared for simulations starting from anti-parallel magnetic field configurations with different strengths of guide field and self-consistent linear and non-linear force-free magnetic fields. It is shown that gradients of off-diagonal components of the electron pressure tensor are the dominant terms that give rise to the reconnection electric field. The typical scale length of the electron pressure tensor components in the weak guide field case is of the order of the electron bounce widths in a field reversal. In the strong guide field case the scale length reduces to the electron Larmor radius in the guide magnetic field.

The structure of the magnetic field is often an important factor in many energetic processes in the solar corona. To determine the topology of the magnetic field features such as null points, separatrix surfaces, and separators must be found. It has been found that these features may be preferred sites for the formation of current sheets associated with the accumulation of free magnetic energy. Over the last decade, it also became clear that the geometrical analogs of the separatrices, the so-called quasi separatrix layers, have similar properties. This thesis has the aim of investigating these properties and to find correlations between these quantities. Our goal is to determine the relation between the geometrical features associated with the QSLs and with current structures, sites of reconnection and topological features. With these aims we conduct three different studies. First, we investigate a non linear force free magnetic field extrapolation from observed magnetogram data taken during a solar flare eruption concentrating our attention on two snapshots, one before the event and one after. We determine the QSLs and related structures and by considering carefully how these change between the two snapshots we are able to propose a possible scenario for how the flare occurred. In our second project we consider potential source distributions. We take different potential point source models: two four sources models already presented in the literature and a random distribution of fifteen sources. From these potential models we conduct a detailed analysis of the relationship between topological features and QSLs. It is found that the maxima of the Q-factor in the photosphere are located near and above the position of the subphotospheric null points (extending part way along their spines) and that their narrow QSLs are associated with the curves defined by the photospheric endpoints of all fan field lines that start from subphotospheric sources. Our last study investigates two different flux rope emergence simulations. In particular, we take one case with and one without an overlying magnetic field. Here, we can identify the QSLs, current, and sites of reconnection and determine the relation between them. From this work we found that not all high-Q regions are associated with current and/or reconnection and vice-versa. We also investigated the geometry of the field lines associated with high-Q regions to determine which geometrical behaviour of the magnetic field they are associated with. Those that are associated with reconnection also coincide with topological features such as separators.

<p>Magnetized planets, such as Earth, are strongly influenced by the solar wind. The Sun is very dynamic, releasing varying amounts of energy, resulting in a fluctuating energy and momentum exchange between the solar wind and planetary magnetospheres. The efficiency of this coupling is thought to be controlled by magnetic reconnection occurring at the boundary between solar wind and planetary magnetic fields. One of the main tasks in space physics research is to increase the understanding of this coupling between the Sun and other solar system bodies. Perhaps the most important aspect regards the transfer of energy from the solar wind to the terrestrial magnetosphere as this is the main source for driving plasma processes in the magnetosphere-ionosphere system. This may also have a direct practical influence on our life here on Earth as it is responsible for Space Weather effects. In this thesis I investigate both the global scale of the varying solar-terrestrial coupling and local phenomena in more detail. I use mainly the European Space Agency Cluster mission which provide unprecedented three-dimensional observations via its formation of four identical spacecraft. The Cluster data are complimented with observations from a broad range of instruments both onboard spacecraft and from groundbased magnetometers and radars.</p><p>A period of very strong solar driving in late October 2003 is investigated. We show that some of the strongest substorms in the history of magnetic recordings were triggered by pressure pulses impacting a quasi-stable magnetosphere. We make for the first time direct estimates of the local energy flow into the magnetotail using Cluster measurements. Observational estimates suggest a good energy balance between the magnetosphere-ionosphere system while empirical proxies seem to suffer from over/under estimations during such extreme conditions.</p><p>Another period of extreme interplanetary conditions give rise to accelerated flows along the magnetopause which could account for an enhanced energy coupling between the solar wind and the magnetosphere. We discuss whether such conditions could explain the simultaneous observation of a large auroral spiral across the polar cap.</p><p>Contrary to extreme conditions the energy conversion across the dayside magnetopause has been estimated during an extended period of steady interplanetary conditions. A new method to determine the rate at which reconnection occurs is described that utilizes the magnitude of the local energy conversion from Cluster. The observations show a varying reconnection rate which support the previous interpretation that reconnection is continuous but its rate is modulated.</p><p>Finally, we compare local energy estimates from Cluster with a global magnetohydrodynamic simulation. The results show that the observations are reliably reproduced by the model and may be used to validate and scale global magnetohydrodynamic models.</p>