Atualmente, o desenvolvimento de nanopartículas (NPs) magnéticas vem recebendo muito interesse da comunidade científica, devido à versatilidade de aplicações, principalmente em biomedicina como diagnóstico e terapia. Para tais aplicações e desejável que as NPs apresentem comportamento superparamagnético e alta magnetização de saturação (Ms). Neste contexto, existe preferência pela utilização de NPs de óxidos de ferro (maghemita e magnetita), devido à baixa toxicidade destes, quando comparadas com as NPs metálicas. No entanto, esses materiais apresentam baixo valor de Ms, o que pelo menos limita suas aplicações. Assim, no presente trabalho foi estudados diversos métodos de obtenção de NPs magnéticas com alto valores de Ms. Desta forma, neste trabalho foram obtidas nanopartículas de carbeto de ferro com alta magnetização de saturação (Ms ≈ 121 emu g-1) via processo de decomposição térmica e com tamanho em torno de 9 nm. Ainda, na tentativa de se obter NPs de ferro metálico, foram modificados diferentes parâmetros de síntese (temperatura de reação, tempo de reação, surfactantes), ocorrendo na formação de NPs de óxido de ferro na fase magnetita com tamanho em torno de 7,5 nm e comportamento magnético das nanopartículas próximo ao superparamagnético com Ms ≈ 40 emu g-1. Apesar de não ter sido possível verificar a formação de ferro metálico, os materiais obtidos, principalmente o carbeto de ferro, se mostraram promissores para a aplicação em biomedicina. / Magnetic nanoparticles have received great attention, due to their several applications possibilities such as diagnostic and therapy in biomedicine. For these applications are required nanoparticles with superparamagnetic behavior and high saturation magnetization (Ms). In this context, iron oxides (magnetite and maghemite) have been used because of lower toxicity than metallic nanoparticles. However, these materials show lower Ms than metallic magnetic nanoparticles that affect these applications. In this way, we studied several synthetic routes in order to high Ms values. Thereby, we obtained iron carbide nanoparticles with high magnetization (Ms = 121 emu.g-1) and controlled size (around 9 nm) using thermal decomposition process. Furthermore, in order to obtain metallic iron nanoparticles, magnetite nanoparticles were obtained with controlled size around 7,5 nm and superparamagnetic behavior with Ms = 40 emu.g-1. Besides metallic iron nanoparticles have not been obtained, iron carbide nanoparticles showed high magnetization and show promising for biomedical applications.

Os aços ferrítico-martensíticos de atividade radioativa reduzida (RAFM, do inglês \"Reduced Activation Ferritic Martensitic\"), são um dos principais candidatos a materiais estruturais para os futuros reatores de fusão nuclear ITER (acrônimo de \"International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor\") e DEMO (futuro reator de fusão nuclear de demonstração nas quais os materiais utilizados para sua construção dependem dos resultados obtidos no reator experimental ITER, cujo início das operações é previsto para 2020). A designação Eurofer-97 corresponde a um aço RAFM desenvolvido pela União Européia com composição nominal 9Cr -1,1W - 0,125Ta - 0,25V - 0,105C - 0,6Mn - 0,036 N (% em peso) visando aplicações no reator ITER. O material para esse estudo foi cedido pelo KIT (Karlsruhe Institut für Technologie - Alemanha), após laminação a quente e revenimento em 760ºC. Em seguida, o material foi laminado a frio (redução de 80%) e tratado em duas diferentes temperaturas no campo austenítico (1050º e 1150ºC) por 30 min, seguido de resfriamento ao ar. Após o tratamento térmico de têmpera, o material foi submetido a diversos revenimentos por 2 h cada em diversas temperaturas até 800ºC. As amostras obtidas foram caracterizadas por meio de microscopia eletrônica de varredura, medidas de microdureza, magnetização e resistividade elétrica. Simulações termodinâmicas foram também realizadas para a previsão das fases presentes no material em função da temperatura. Para revenimentos em ? 500oC ocorreu um ligeiro aumento na microdureza do aço Eurofer-97, seguido por um amolecimento significativo do material para revenimentos realizados em mais altas temperaturas. A mesma tendência foi observada para a resistividade elétrica. O campo coercivo também apresentou uma forte queda para revenimentos realizados em temperaturas maiores que ?550oC. Esses resultados indicaram que o início da precipitação de nitretos e carbonetos no aço Eurofer-97 ocorre por volta de 500oC. Para revenimentos em temperaturas mais amenas o campo coercivo e a resistividade elétrica se mostraram mais sensíveis às mudanças microestruturais do material do que as medidas de microdureza. / Reduced-activation ferritic-martensitic (RAFM) steels are promising candidates as structural materials in future fusion power plants as ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor) and DEMO (nuclear fusion power plant that is intended to build upon the expected success of the ITER, which is expected becomes operational in 2020). The Eurofer-97 is a RAFM steel developed by the European Union with nominal composition 9Cr -1,1W - 0,125Ta - 0,25V - 0,105C - 0,6Mn - 0,036 N (wt.%). The material for this study was supplied by KIT (Karlsruhe Institut für Technologie - Germany), after hot rolling followed by tempering at 760oC. Next the Eurofer-97 steel was cold rolled (80% reduction) and treated in two different temperatures in the austenitic field (1050º and 1150ºC) by 30 min, followed by air cooling. After quenching the material was tempered for 2 h at several temperatures up to 800ºC. The samples were characterized using scanning electron microscopy, microhardness tests, magnetization and electrical resistivity measurements. Thermodynamical simulations were also performed in order to predict the temperature dependence of the equilibrium phases in the material. For tempering at ?500oC it was observed a slightly increase in the microhardness of the Eurofer-97 steel, followed by pronounced softening for tempering performed at higher temperatures. The same trend was observed for the electrical resistivity. The coercive field also shown a strong decrease for tempering performed at higher temperatures than ?550oC. These results suggested that the beginning of nitrates and carbonates precipitation occurs around 500oC. For tempering performed in mild temperatures the coercive field and electrical resistivity are more sensitive than microhardness measurements to detect the microstructural changes in the investigated material.

Stacked commercial second generation (2G) high temperature superconducting (HTS) tapes has been demonstrated to have great field trapping ability, with superior mechanical, thermal properties and crossed-field performance to HTS bulks. HTS stacks are considered as a very promising candidate for superconducting permanent magnets, which can be used for many applications like superconducting machines and levitation devices. However, the current magnetization methods for HTS stacks are the conventional magnetization methods developed for HTS bulks decades ago, which have various limitations. On the other hand, the recent progress on HTS flux pumping technology enables HTS coils to be successfully magnetized in an effective and efficient way. In this thesis, these two concepts were combined for the first time. Flux pumping for HTS stacks was proposed and developed as a new magnetization technique. I employed two types of flux pumps, the rotating magnet flux pump and the rectifier type flux pump, to magnetize the modified HTS stacks. The design of the flux pumps, the experimental results and the analysis of the observed behaviours are presented in the thesis. This research provides a new direction in the magnetization of HTS permanent magnets, which has the potential to make HTS permanent magnets more practical with lighter, more compact and efficient magnetization setups.

Válvulas de Spin têm sido utilizadas na fabricação de sensores magnéticos e memórias de acesso randômico, sendo muito importantes do ponto de vista tecnológico. Neste trabalho, foram exploradas as análises das curvas de reversão de primeira ordem da magnetorresistência (MR-FORC), bem como ajustes das curvas de histereses da magnetização e magnetorresistência, para estudar o fenômeno de exchange-bias, anisotropia magnética e propriedades magnetorresistivas. As válvulas de spin estudadas foram do tipo NiFe/Cu/NiFe/IrMn, tendo camadas semente e de cobertura de Ta, preparadas por sputtering. Um modelo fenomenológico de parede de domínios no material antiferromagnético (AFM) foi utilizado, levando em conta as anisotropias magnéticas e interações entre as camadas. Também foram consideradas certas dispersões da anisotropia dos grãos ferromagnéticos (FM) e antiferromagnéticos (com distribuições Gaussianas) em torno dos respectivos eixos de anisotropia uniaxiais. Para o ajuste da magnetização para algumas amostras, foi necessário utilizar uma rotação no plano de um ângulo nos eixos de anisotropia uniaxiais do FM e AFM, em relação à direção do campo magnético aplicado durante a deposição dos filmes. Bons ajustes das curvas de histereses das magnetizações foram obtidos nas direções medidas do campo magnético aplicado. Um método baseado em medidas de variações angulares da magnetorresistência em campos constantes foi proposto para extrair este ângulo para cada amostra. Foram obtidas razoáveis concordâncias entre estes ângulos e os correspondentes extraídos dos ajustes das curvas de magnetização. Através da análise dos diagramas da MR-FORC e de simulações indicados dos resultados dos ajustes das histereses da magnetização, foi encontrada uma relação direta entre os campos de interação (e suas incertezas) com os campos de exchange-bias (HEB) dos grãos da distribuição (extraídos das simulações, usando a largura da distribuição obtida do ajuste). Resumindo, esta análise mostrou que esta técnica permite extrair informações comparativas sobre a dispersão dos eixos de anisotropia dos grãos FM e AFM em torno do eixo de anisotropia uniaxial, o que pode ser importante na caracterização dos sensores magnetorresistivos. Além disso, análise dos diagramas MR-FORC indicaram início da presença de descontinuidade na camada de NiFe presa em 27, com um aumento acentuado (acima do previsto) para a amostra com 25. Este aumento acima do previsto corrobora com nossa hipótese. As simulações das curvas de histerese da magnetorresistência não foram muito bons, indicando que melhorias devem ser introduzidas no modelo utilizado para a simulação da histerese da magnetorresistência, obtidos a partir dos ângulos das camadas ferromagnéticas livre e presa. A questão referente a presença em algumas das amostras de um desalinhamento entre os eixos fácéis do FM e do AFM ainda é uma questão em aberta, mas neste trabalho foi encontrado que este ângulo é igual a 2. / Spin Valves have been employed as magnetic sensors and used in random access memories, showing they are very important in terms of technological point of view. In this work, analyses of the magnetoresistance first order reversal curves (MR-FORC) have been used, as well as fittings of the magnetization and magnetoresistance hysteresis, to study the exchange-bias phenomena, magnetic anisotropies and magnetoresistance in spin valves. Sputtering has been used to the deposition of NiFe/Cu/NiFe/IrMn, and Ta has been deposited as seed and buffer layers. A domain wall model (in the antiferromagnetic layer) taking into account the magnetic anisotropies and the interactions between the layers has been employed to fit the magnetization hysteresis. Some textures have been also introduced to take into account the ferromagnetic (FM) and antiferromagnetic (AFM) grains dispersion (with Gaussian distributions) centered around the respective uniaxial anisotropy axes. However, to obtain good fits for some samples, it has been necessary to include an in-plane rotation of an angle of the both FM and AFM easy axes in relation to the field direction applied during the growing of the films. Good fits of the magnetization hysteresis have been obtained for all measured directions of the applied field. A new method based on the angular variation of the magnetoresistance to constant fields has been proposed to extract directly these angles. Reasonable agreements have been obtained between these angles and the corresponding ones extracted from the fits of the magnetization loops. Through the analyses of the MR-FORC and from the simulations indicated by the parameters (obtained from the fittings of magnetization loops), a direct relation between the interaction fields (and its uncertainties) and the exchange-bias fields of the grains of the distribution (extracted from the simulations, using the width of the distribution obtained from the magnetization fittings) has been identified. In summary, this analysis has showed that this technique allows to extract comparative information about the dispersion of the anisotropy axes of the FM and AFM grains around the uniaxial axis, which can be very import to the characterization of spin-valve based sensors. Besides, MR-FORC analyses have also indicated the presence of a threshold of discontinuity of the pinned NiFe layer at 27, showing a huge increase (above of the expected) to the sample at 25, and this unexpected increasing has corroborated with our hypothese. Simulations of the magnetoresistance loops have not been good, indicating that improvements should be included in the model employed to simulate these curves, obtained from the pinned and free angles of the NiFe layers. Concerning the case of the presence of misalignments of FM and AFM for some samples, it is still an open question, but in this work, we have found that this angle () is equal to 2.

Orientador: Antônio Carlos Ferreira Seridonio / Resumo: Investigamos teoricamente um sistema composto por duas impurezas afastadas e enterradas em um semimetal de Weyl. Analisamos a densidade de estados local para duas situações: com simetrias de reversão temporal e inversão preservadas e; simetria de reversão temporal quebrada e inversão preservada. Na situação em que as duas simetrias são preservadas, o Hamiltoniano descreve um semimetal de Dirac. Sendo assim, verificamos a densidade de estados local em dois pontos diferentes do semimetal de Dirac e os orbitais moleculares formado pelas impurezas. É possível observar que em alguns pontos, a densidade de estados total, que pode ser obtido experimentalmente via espectroscopia de varredura por tunelamento, há a presença de apenas dois picos, enquanto que em outro ponto há a presença de quatro picos. Sendo assim, a presença de dois picos nos leva a crer que não há interação entre as impurezas, entretanto, em outro ponto que contém quatro picos em sua densidade de estados, mostra que há interação entre as impurezas. Analisamos os orbitais moleculares realizando uma topografa espacial da densidade de estados e é possível observar estados ligante e antiligante entre as impurezas com orbitais s. A segunda situação, com a quebra de simetria de reversão temporal e simetria de inversão preservada, temos um semimetal de Weyl com as bandas de energias separadas no espaço dos momentos e com energias degeneradas. Verificamos na densidade de estados local, uma magnetização das impurezas devido ... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: We investigate theoretically the setup composed by two distant impurities and burried in Weyl semimetal. We analyze a local density of states for two situations: with time reversal symmetry and inversion symmetry preserved and; time reversal symmetry broken and inversion symmetry preserved. In the situation that the two symmetries are preserved, the Hamiltonian describes a Dirac semimetal. Therefore, we verified the local density of states in two different points of Dirac semimetal and the molecular orbital formed by the impurities. It is possible to observe that in some points, the total density of states, which can be obtained experimentally via scanning tunneling microscope, there is the presence of just two peaks, while that in another point there is the presence of four peaks. Therefore, the presence of two peaks leads us to belive that there is no interaction between impurities, however, in the another point that contain four peaks in the density of states, show that there is interaction between the impurities. We analyze the molecular orbital realizing a spacial topography of density of states and it is possible to observe bonding and antibonding states between impurities with s orbital. The second situation, with the time reversal symmetry broken and inversion symmetry preserved, we have a Weyl semimetal with separated energy bands in momentum space and degenerate energy. We verified in the local density of states, a magnetization of the impurities due to the time rev... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Mestre

Foram feitos estudos das propriedades magnéticas e estruturais em nanofios de níquel em uma lâmina de alumínio. As amostras foram obtidas através da anodização em duas etapas, seguida de uma eletrodeposição AC. Foi verificado que o aumento do potencial usado nas anodizações acarretam em um aumento do tamanho dos grãos cristalinos de níquel e dos diâmetros dos nanofios. O tamanho dos grãos de níquel e dos diâmetros dos nanofios variaram, respectivamente, entre 10 a 20 nm e 30 a 50 nm. As amostras apresentam alta anisotropia de forma, com coercividade entre 565 a 725 Oe. As interações magnéticas foram estudadas através das curvas `delta´M, estas mostraram que as interações desmagnetizantes são dominantes nestes sistemas. O modelo de Stoner-Wohlfarth, acréscido de um termo de interação foi utilizado para simular e interpretar o comportamento magnético dos nanofios. Através dos resultados numéricos e experimentais foi verificado que a componente reversível (Mrev) da magnetização independe do estado inicial do sistema, diferentemente do comportamento para a componente irreversível (Mirr). Através da análise das curvas de Mrev(Mirr)Hi , provenientes dos resultados numéricos e experimentais, foi verificado que existe um forte indicativo quanto ao modo de inversão da magnetização por curling, para nanofios / Studies of magnetic and structural properties of nickel nanowires deposited on nanoporous alumina membranes were carried out. The samples were obtained by a two-step anodization, followed by an AC electrodeposition. It was noted that the diameters of the nanowires and the crystalline grain size of the deposited nickel increase with the anodization voltage. The mean diameters and the grain sizes varied from 10 to 20 nm and from 30 to 50 nm, respectively. The samples exhibited a strong shape anisotropy, with coercivities between 565 and 725 Oe. Magnetic interactions were studied via `delta´M curves, which showed that the dominant interactions are rather demagnetizing in these systems. An interacting Stoner-Wohlfarth model was developed to simulate and reproduce the magnetic behavior of the nanowires. From the comparison between numerical and experimental results (which exhibit excellent agreement), it was noted that reversible components of magnetization (Mrev) do not depend on the initial state of the system, whereas irreversible components (Mirr) do. From the analysis of Mrev(Mirr)Hi curves of numerical and experimental results, it was noted that there is strong evidence for the curling magnetization reversal mode for these systems

The use of geophysical techniques to image the interiors of active volcanoes can provide a better understanding of their structure and plumbing. The need for such information is especially critical for undersea volcanoes, whose environment makes them difficult to investigate. Because undersea volcanoes are made up of highly magnetic basaltic rock, it is possible to use variations in the magnetic field to explore the internal structure of such edifices. This study combines magnetic survey data from 12 research cruises to make a magnetic anomaly map of volcanically active Loihi, located in the Hawaiian Island chain. NRM intensities and susceptibility measurements were measured from recovered rock samples and suggest that magnetic properties of Loihi are widely varied (NRM intensities range from 1-157 A/m and susceptibilities from 1.26 x 10-3 to 3.62 x 10-2 S.I.). The average NRM intensity is 26 A/m. The size and strength of magnetic source bodies were determined by using various modeling techniques. A strongly magnetized shield can explain most of the anomaly with a large nonmagnetic zone inside, beneath the summit. Prominent magnetic highs are located along Loihi's north and south rift zone dikes and modeling solutions suggest strongly magnetized source bodies in these areas as well as a thin, magnetic layer atop the nonmagnetic zone. The strong magnetic anomalies found along the volcano's rift zones cannot be readily attributed to recent lava flows at the surface. Instead, the source bodies must continue several kilometers in depth to give reasonable magnetization values and are interpreted as dike intrusions. Nonmagnetic anomalies at the summit and south of the summit suggest the presence of a magma system. The model solution suggests Loihi is an inhomogeneously magnetized seamount with highly magnetic dike intrusions along the rift zones with a nonmagnetic body at its center overlain with a magnetic layer.

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The first part of this thesis is an experimental study of the spin-dependent transport in magnetic point contacts. Nano-contacts are produced micromechanically, by bringing a sharpened non-magnetic (N) tip into contact with a ferromagnetic (F) film. The magnetic and magneto-transport properties of such N/F nanocontacts are studied using transport spectroscopy, spanning the ballistic, diffusive, and thermal transport regimes. Single N/F interfaces can exhibit current driven magnetic excitations, which are often manifest as peaks in the differential resistance of a point contact defining the N/F interface. Our experiments show that such surface magnetization excitations, and thus the single-interface spin torques, are observed for diffusive and thermal transport regimes where the conduction electrons experience strong scattering near the N/F interface, and are absent for purely ballistic contacts. We conclude that the single-interface spin torque effect is due to impurity scattering at N/F interfaces. Single N/F interfaces can also exhibit hysteretic conductivity, which is qualitatively similar to the spin-valve effect found in F/N/F trilayers. Based on our measurements of N/F point contacts in the size range of 1-30 nm, we propose two mechanisms of the observed hysteresis. The first mechanism relies on a non-uniform spin distribution near the contact core and is magnetoelastic in origin. This interpretation is in good agreement with some of our experiments on larger point contacts as well as with a numerical micromagnetic model we have developed, where a stress-induced anisotropy creates a non-uniform, domain-wall-like spin distribution in the contact core. The second mechanism we propose is a surface effect which relies on a difference between the surface and interior spins in the ferromagnet in terms of their exchange and anisotropy properties. The surface spin-valve mechanism is in good agreement with the hysteretic magnetoresistance observed for our smallest contacts (~1 nm) and for contacts to nanometer thin ferromagnetic films. This interpretation means that the surface magnetization can be reduced and weakly coupled to the interior spins in the ferromagnet. We find that this surface spin layer can be affected by both external fields and the spin torque of a transport current. The surface magnetization can even form nano-sized spin vorticies at the interface. The nature of the magnetic excitations induced by by nominally unpolarized currents through single N/F interfaces was probed directly using microwave irradiation. We observed two characteristic high-frequency effects: a resonant stimulation of spin-wave modes by microwaves, and a rectification of off-resonant microwave currents by spin-wave nonlinearities in the point contact conductance. These experiments demonstrate that the effects observed are spin-dynamic in nature. In the second part of the thesis we study the spin-dynamics in spin-flop tunnel junctions used in toggle magnetic random access memory. Current pulses in the range of 100 ps used to excite the magnetic moments of the two coupled Py free layers into an oscillatory state, in both the antiparallel and scissor states of the cell. These oscillations are detected directly by measuring the junction resistance in real time with a 6 GHz measurement bandwidth. The junctions had the shape of an ellipse, with lateral size ranging from 350x420 to 400x560 nm. The optical and acoustical precession modes of the the spin-flop trilayer are observed in experiment, as expected from single-domain model. The experimental spectra contain additional features, which are explained using numerical micromagnetic simulations, as originating from magnetic state transitions between different magnetization states with non-uniform spin distributions. / QC 20100818

Imaging techniques provide a method for non-invasive longitudinal monitoring of cancer therapies, but common metrics such as tumour size are late markers and do not indicate heterogeneity of response. Apoptotic cell death is an earlier marker of tumour response and produces molecular and cellular-level changes (macromolecular breakdown, membrane changes and cell shrinkage) that may be detectable by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Previous studies using conventional MRI methods have shown little sensitivity to apoptosis. In this thesis it is hypothesized that, using an extracellular contrast agent to affect the MRI property of relaxation for extracellular water preferentially, parameters related to water in the intracellular and extracellular environments and the exchange between them can be obtained and will be sensitive to apoptosis. It is also hypothesized that membrane changes and macromolecular breakdown are detectable by the technique of magnetization transfer. Measurements of relaxation in the presence of contrast agent in vitro demonstrated a decrease in extracellular water fraction and an increase in the rate of water exchange across the plasma membrane during apoptosis. In vivo, this method was complicated by the difficulty of delivering contrast agent to the tumour, but regions with good delivery showed correlation between high water exchange rates from MRI and apoptosis in histology. Magnetization transfer studies indicated only small changes in vitro during apoptosis and these were largely related to changes in the free water, so this method was not investigated further. Further work is required to determine the tumour lines where the water exchange methods may be applied reliably. Nevertheless, the method of measuring water exchange presented in this thesis can be performed in a clinically-feasible amount of time (~20 minutes). It therefore has potential in detecting apoptosis and predicting therapy response. It also emphasizes the role of water exchange in conventional MRI relaxation experiments.