Mammary gland (MG) is a dynamic organ that is essential for the production and secretion of breast milk. During pregnancy the MG undergoes a critical phase of remodeling, which is accompanied by the differentiation of mammary epithelial cells (MECs). During lactation, the MG requires high level of energy for proper folding of proteins in the secretory pathway, which takes place in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Limited evidence has been reported on the impact of cannabis or its components, delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD), on the differentiation of MECs. However, both THC and CBD have been reported to induce ER stress in various cell types, resulting in impacting cellular function. Furthermore, consequences of cannabis use in the perinatal period on breast milk composition have not been reported. Using the HC11 cell line, we investigated whether THC and CBD evoke ER stress in MECs resulting in the impaired cellular function. We also reported on the effects of cannabis use during pregnancy and lactation on the levels of macronutrients and bioactive factors in the breast milk of cannabis users. Relative to control, 10μM THC and 10μM CBD reduced mRNA levels of milk proteins (CSN2 and WAP) and lipid synthesizing enzymes (FASN, FABP4, PLIN2 and LPL), as well as whey acidic protein and lipid levels. In addition, 10μM THC, 10μM CBD, and the combination of 10μM THC + 10μM CBD significantly induced the expression of ER stress genes in HC11 cells. Furthermore, in the milk of women who used cannabis during pregnancy and lactation, the levels of secretory immunoglobulin A (SIgA) were decreased, relative to non-users. Altogether, our findings indicate that cannabis use in the perinatal period may have implications on breast milk composition and infant health. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (Medical Science) / Breast milk is crucial to the nutrition and immunity of the newborn. It is produced by the mammary gland (MG), which is composed of mammary epithelial cells (MEC) that play a key role in producing and secreting proteins and factors into the milk. During pregnancy, the MG undergoes remodeling which is accompanied by differentiation of the MECs (change from unspecialized to a specialized stage that allows the MECs to produce milk proteins and other factors). The disruption in MEC differentiation can result in altered milk production and composition. Cannabis is used by women during pregnancy and breastfeeding. In this study, we investigated the impact of cannabinoids on the MEC differentiation and examined the effect of cannabis use in the perinatal period on the breast milk composition in humans. We reported that cannabinoids reduced the differentiation of MECs and maternal cannabis use during breastfeeding reduced levels of an essential immune factor.

Much interest has recently accumulated of the role of adult stem cells in both normal tissue homeostasis and carcinogenesis. Whereas normal and cancerous mammary epithelial stem cells have been identified and isolated from bulk primary tissue, little remains known about their regulation in vivo. Here we describe the molecular profile of mammary epithelial stem cells cultured in vitro and that of their tumourigenic counterparts, breast cancer stem cells. Our studies of gene transcription reveal potential mechanisms that may cooperate in the regulation of normal and cancer stem cells in vitro, and may also reflect their in vivo behaviour. These data bear consequences for the design of novel breast cancer therapeutics, as cancer stem cells are thought to resist conventional treatments and persist thereafter, causing disease relapse and seeding metastases. To address this issue we have devised a functional genomics approach to screen for novel biomarkers and therapeutic targets of breast cancer modeled in vitro; this culture system is centered on bona fide stem cells and may therefore offer improved relevance to human disease when compared with breast cancer cell lines. / Thesis / Master of Science (MS)

Activated protein tyrosine kinases, which have been implicated in the genesis of a number of human cancers, rely on a variety of protein-protein interactions to transmit their proliferative signals within the cell. These interactions are often mediated by Src homology 2 and 3 (SH2 and SH3) domains. A class of proteins which are mainly composed of such domains, termed adaptor proteins, has been identified. The Growth factor receptor bound proteins Grb2 and Grb7 are SH2 domain adaptor proteins which have been shown to associate directly or in complex with many tyrosine kinases, including the c-ErbB-2/Neu receptor tyrosine kinase. While overexpression of either protein alone in rat fibroblasts is not transforming, human breast cancer cell lines exhibit Grb2 and Grb7 gene amplification, and mRNA and protein overexpression. The role of Grb2 in polyomavirus middle T antigen-mediated mammary tumorigenesis has been examined utilizing gene targeting and transgenic approaches. Initial characterization of the progeny of matings involving Grb2+/mice and MMTV/middle T transgenic mice indicated that delayed tumor kinetics may be the result of Grb2 dosage differences between mT+;Grb2+/-and mT+;Grb2+/+ animals. Transgenic animals expressing a dominant negative version of Grb2 in the mammary epithelium have been generated to explore an alternate method for disrupting signaling from middle T antigen. The role of Grb2 and Grb7 in Neu-mediated mammary tumorigenesis is also being examined. Both MMTV/Grb2 and MMTV/Grb7 transgenic mice that express the transgene in the mammary epithelium have been identified by ribonuclease protection analysis. Matings involving these strains and MMTV/neu mice should aid in determining the effects of overexpressing Grb2 or Grb7 on Neu-mediated mammary tumorigenesis. / Thesis / Master of Science (MS)

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Aristaless-like homeobox 4 is a homeodomain transcription factor that has important functions during mouse development. A recent report demonstrated that Alx4 expression is required in periductal stromal cells in the mouse mammary gland for normal mammary morphogenesis. To test the hypothesis that ALX4 is expressed in the normal human breast, and this expression is altered in breast cancer, immunohistochemistry was performed on normal and breast cancer tissue and breast tissue microarrays. In the normal breast, ALX4 was expressed in stromal fibroblasts and luminal epithelial cells, but not in myoepithelial cells. Expression was lost in breast cancer in both cell compartments. Upon global demethylation induced by 5-aza-2’-deoxycytidine, normal and breast cancer cell lines expressed ALX4, suggesting that hypermethylation may repress expression of ALX4 during malignant transformation of the breast. These results demonstrate that ALX4 may be used as a biomarker for breast cancer, and may act as a tumour suppressor.

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O câncer de mama permanece como o segundo tipo de câncer mais freqüente no mundo e o primeiro entre as mulheres (INCA, 2007). Porém, os mecanismos envolvidos no processo de gênese dos tumores mamários mesmo sendo intensamente estudados nos últimos 30 anos, ainda não são bem definidos. Vários estudos apontam que a susceptibilidade em função da genética é uma causa relevante ao surgimento do tumor, porém não a principal. Outros fatores tais quais o ambiente e dieta tendem a ser mais significantes nesse processo. Para a indução dos tumores em animais, a maioria dos modelos utiliza carcinógenos pertencentes à família dos hidrocarbonetos aromáticos policíclicos, dentre eles o DMBA (7,12-dimetil bezantraceno). O DMBA foi utilizado neste estudo com o objetivo de induzir tumor mamário, estabelecendo-se assim um modelo para estudos futuros, quantificando e classificando as lesões nas diferentes concentrações do carcinógeno, avaliando também a proliferação celular através do método de imunohistoquímica PCNA nos diferentes tumores encontrados. Neste estudo, em todos os grupos houve o desenvolvimento de tumores mamários, sendo estes mais freqüentes nos grupos de 3, 6 e 9 mg. O tipo de tumor mais freqüente foi o Adenocarcinoma A, seguido de Adenoacantoma e Adenocarcinoma Misto em menor freqüência. Sendo assim, concluiu-se através deste trabalho que o DMBA produz um modelo de carcinogênese mamária em camundongos. / The breast cancer remains the second most common cancer type in the world and first among women (INCA, 2008). However, the mechanisms involved in the origin even being intensively studied in the past 30 years, are still not well defined. Several studies suggest that genetic susceptibility is a relevant issue to the tumor development, however others factors can favor tumor growing. Among such factors the environment and diet are considered more significant. For mice tumor induction, most significant carcinogens used belonging to the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons family, where DMBA (7,12-dimethyl bezantraceno) take place. The DMBA was used in this study in order to induce mammary tumors, establishing the real conditions for future studies in our mice colony, classifying and quantifying the lesions. Cell proliferation was also evaluated though the immunohistochemistry against PCNA in different tumors classified. In this study, all concentration resulted in breast tumor development, which was more frequently observed in groups of 3, 6 and 9 mg. The most common type tumor regarded was Adenocarcinoma A, followed by Adenoacantoma and Mixed A/B in lower frequency. In conclusion, DMBA was able to produces a model of mammary carcinogenesis in mice.