The valuation of ecosystem services requires first and foremost, that the current level or stock of a service first be estimated. Here, I investigate the relationship between the fields of environmental science and ecological economics in their research effort of ecosystem services and the implications this may have on the ecosystem valuation research program. I investigate two ecological functions described as ecosystem services within specific ecosystem types: the flood control provisioning services of wetlands and pollination service provisioning by pollinator populations in agroecosystems. I examined the environmental literature to provide quantitative estimates of a) the distribution of the level of service delivered as well as b) the ability of environmental scientists to predict this level of service. The results presented here suggest a moderately strong correlation between research efforts in environmental science and ecological economics at the pooled level of ecosystem types and services. I suggest however, an integrated research enterprise between social and environmental scientists may provide greater efficiency by means of a global ecosystem service research network and repository. I found that, on average, consistent with conventional wisdom, wetlands do indeed have a positive effect by reducing the frequency and magnitude of floods, increasing low flows, and increasing water storage. In the same vein, I found on average and consistent with conventional wisdom, there is a consistent and comparatively strong association between pollinator abundance and agroecosystem productivity as inferred from measures of plant fertilization success. In both investigations however, metaregression analysis indicated that our current ability to predict either pollination or flood control services is poor to modest at best. The low predictive power combined with the observed heterogeneity in effect size in both investigations suggest that flood control service delivered by wetlands or pollination services delivered by natural pollinator populations in agroecosystems and the expected changes in the level of services delivered under a candidate management scenario, will have a large uncertainty. Such uncertainty should be explicitly incorporated into estimates of both the current economic value of ecosystem services, as well as estimates of how these values are likely to change under alternative management scenarios. Given these, I suggest that the implications for the development of Market-based instruments (MBIs) or any payment of ecosystem services to conserve ecosystem services: that the associated ecological function(s) must be few and well characterized, and we must agree on what endpoints ought to properly be used to characterize these functions. If this condition is not met, an ordinal ranking is the best we can do and in the absence of obvious enthusiasm for more detailed scientific research which leads to the conclusion that perhaps alternate strategies like command and control may be the better alternative to protect ecosystem services.

Multi-robot task assignment (allocation) involves assigning robots to tasks in order to optimize the entire team’s performances. Until now, one of the most useful non-domain-specific ways to coordinate multi-robot systems is through task allocation mechanisms. This dissertation addresses the classic task assignment problems in which robots and tasks are eventually matched by forming a one-to-one mapping, and their overall performances (e.g., cost, utility, and risk) can be linearly summed. At a high level, this research emphasizes two facets of the multi-robot task assignment, including (1) novel extensions from classic assignment algorithms, and (2) completely newly designed task allocation methods with impressive new features. For the former, we first propose a strongly polynomial assignment sensitivity analysis algorithm as well as a means to measure the assignment uncertainties; after that we propose a novel method to address problems of multi-robot routing and formation morphing, the trajectories of which are obtained from projections of augmenting paths that reside in a new three-dimensional interpretation of embedded matching graphs. For the latter, we present two optimal assignment algorithms that are distributable and suitable for multi-robot task allocation problems: the first one is an anytime assignment algorithm that produces non-decreasing assignment solutions along a series of task-swapping operations, each of which updates the assignment configurations and thus can be interrupted at any moment; the second one is a new market-based algorithm with a novel pricing policy: in contrast to the buyers’ “selfish” bidding behaviors in conventional auction/market-based approaches, we employ a virtual merchant to strategically escalate market prices in order to reach a state of equilibrium that satisfies both the merchant and buyers. Both of these newly developed assignment algorithms have a strongly polynomial running time close to the benchmark algorithms but can be easily decentralized in terms of computation and communication.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / This study examines how families judge and choose high schools. The review of literature relating to school choice provides a theoretical framework for the study. The review includes an international perspective including both developed countries such as United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Denmark, England and Wales, the Netherlands, Scotland and Sweden, and developing countries including India, Chile, Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Mauritania, Senegal, Cote d'Ivoire and South Africa. The context within which school choice occurs in South Africa is examined. This context includes continued influence of Apartheid policies and current legislation including the South African Schools Act, The Admission Policy for Ordinary Schools Act and the Norms and Standards for Schools Funding. The literature review includes a critical analysis of the research, both Local and International, which addresses questions as to which factors are considered when judging and choosing schools, who makes the choice school, when the choice of school is made and which sources of information inform the choice of school. The empirical study examines the process of high school choice in urban Cape Town. The group areas Act and other Apartheid policies have created a situation where the respondents have a large number of high schools from which to chose. The selected area reflects diversity in Socio-Economic status, including both privately owned homes and council rental flats and houses. The study is limited to English medium or dual medium schools in the area. It includes both co-ed and single gender schools. / South Africa

Magister Philosophiae - MPhil / This thesis interrogates the claim that resource-poor, rural land seekers can acquire land through the land market which constitutes the central mechanism of land redistribution in South Africa's market-based land reform programme. The study explores two key aspects in relation to this claim. Firstly, it provides a critique of the underlying assumptions prevalent in much of the current market-based land reform policy, as advocated by its national and international proponents, and the manner in which the market as a mechanism for land redistribution has been conceptualized and its outcomes envisaged. Secondly, it considers the extent to which this conceptualization - which it is argued, draws on idealized and abstracted notions of land market functioning - is realized and examines the extent to which the espoused outcomes of market-based land reform policy are aligned with or contradicted by the functioning of real markets and the experiences of resource-poor land seeking people in their attempts to engage in the land market with limited state support. The details of the market's operation are analysed, with a distinction made between the operational practice of real markets - based on direct evidence-based observation and degrees of policy abstraction and theoretical assumptions regarding how markets should or might operate. The study's methodological framework draws on an agrarian political economy perspective, as used by theorists such as Akram-Lodhi (2007) and Courville (2005), amongst others. This perspective enables a consideration of the various contexts and socially embedded processes involved in land transactions and the extent to which these are shaped and framed by the politics of policy-making. In line with this perspective, the study focuses on the social relations brought to bear on the acquisition of land and the way in which land markets operate. It is suggested that land is not solely viewed as an economic commodity by land-seekers. Furthermore, it was found that markets cannot be understood as neutral institutions in which participants are equal players. / South Africa

The valuation of ecosystem services requires first and foremost, that the current level or stock of a service first be estimated. Here, I investigate the relationship between the fields of environmental science and ecological economics in their research effort of ecosystem services and the implications this may have on the ecosystem valuation research program. I investigate two ecological functions described as ecosystem services within specific ecosystem types: the flood control provisioning services of wetlands and pollination service provisioning by pollinator populations in agroecosystems. I examined the environmental literature to provide quantitative estimates of a) the distribution of the level of service delivered as well as b) the ability of environmental scientists to predict this level of service. The results presented here suggest a moderately strong correlation between research efforts in environmental science and ecological economics at the pooled level of ecosystem types and services. I suggest however, an integrated research enterprise between social and environmental scientists may provide greater efficiency by means of a global ecosystem service research network and repository. I found that, on average, consistent with conventional wisdom, wetlands do indeed have a positive effect by reducing the frequency and magnitude of floods, increasing low flows, and increasing water storage. In the same vein, I found on average and consistent with conventional wisdom, there is a consistent and comparatively strong association between pollinator abundance and agroecosystem productivity as inferred from measures of plant fertilization success. In both investigations however, metaregression analysis indicated that our current ability to predict either pollination or flood control services is poor to modest at best. The low predictive power combined with the observed heterogeneity in effect size in both investigations suggest that flood control service delivered by wetlands or pollination services delivered by natural pollinator populations in agroecosystems and the expected changes in the level of services delivered under a candidate management scenario, will have a large uncertainty. Such uncertainty should be explicitly incorporated into estimates of both the current economic value of ecosystem services, as well as estimates of how these values are likely to change under alternative management scenarios. Given these, I suggest that the implications for the development of Market-based instruments (MBIs) or any payment of ecosystem services to conserve ecosystem services: that the associated ecological function(s) must be few and well characterized, and we must agree on what endpoints ought to properly be used to characterize these functions. If this condition is not met, an ordinal ranking is the best we can do and in the absence of obvious enthusiasm for more detailed scientific research which leads to the conclusion that perhaps alternate strategies like command and control may be the better alternative to protect ecosystem services.

A fuel levy is one of the market-based measures (MBMs) currently under consideration at the International Maritime Organization. MBMs have been proposed to improve the energy efficiency of the shipping sector and reduce its emissions. This paper analyses the economic and environmental implications of two types of levy on shipping bunker fuels by means of an analytical model built on the cobweb theorem. A unit-tax per ton of fuel and an ad-valorem tax, enforced as a percentage of fuel prices, are examined. In both cases, a speed and fuel-consumption reduction equivalent to an improvement in the energy efficiency of the sector would be expected as a result of the regulation enforcement. The speed reduction in the unit-tax case depends on fuel prices and the tax amount, whereas in the ad-valorem case it relies upon the enforced tax percentage. Both schemes lead to industry profit decline, the extent of which depend on the structure of the levy and market conditions. Since there is concern that the costs resulting from the policy will be passed from shipping companies to their customers along the supply chain, the paper dwells on how the costs arising from the enforcement of the levy will be actually allocated between ship-owners and operators, and cargo-owners. In a market characterised by high freight rates and with no or limited excess capacity, a higher percentage of the total tax amount is transferred from ship-owners to shippers. In case of a recession the opposite happens.

Background: Digitalized operations have become praxis for organizations of all shapes and sizes and while the digital tools keep developing, certain aspects make it difficult for certain organizations to keep up. One of the most modern, efficient, and sought-after digital tools is artificial intelligence (AI). With increased efficiency and decreased human errors, it has become the foundation for operations within organizations all over the world. One of these types of operations is the human resource management (HRM) process found in each organization. And while some industries have had a much easier task in adopting AI into their HRM function, others have had more difficulty. Purpose: While there are a few theories of what might affect the process of AI adoption, these are quite old and often known to managers. Yet, certain industries have a hard time adopting AI tools within the HRM function while other industries have fully implemented automated systems that have revolutionized the way they operate. The purpose of this study is to understand why and how AI adoption differs between these industries when it comes to similar operations such as the HRM function. Method:        The methods of this study were based on the grounded theory (GT) as a basis to analyze eight different organizations within the financial industry and telecom industry. Through semi-structured interviews, different aspects could be illustrated as crucial when it comes to the possibility to adopt AI within existing operations.  Conclusion: The results of this study show that the AI-maturity of the organization and industry alike play a crucial part in successfully adopting AI. But the institutional pressures and the available resources are equally important to understand to be able to successfully adopt AI. These two aspects form the outcome of AI adoption and the number of complex combinations that can be formed highlights why AI adoption differs between organizations and industries alike.

Yes / In this paper, a stochastic method for active distribution networks planning within a distribution market environment considering multi-configuration of wind turbines is proposed. Multi-configuration multi-scenario market-based optimal power flow is used to maximize the social welfare considering uncertainties related to wind speed and load demand and different operational status of wind turbines (multiple-wind turbine configurations). Scenario-based approach is used to model the abovementioned uncertainties. The method evaluates the impact of multiple-wind turbine configurations and active network management schemes on the amount of wind power that can be injected into the grid, the distribution locational marginal prices throughout the network and on the social welfare. The effectiveness of the proposed method is demonstrated with 16-bus UK generic distribution system. It was shown that multi-wind turbine configurations under active network management schemes, including coordinated voltage control and adaptive power factor control, can increase the amount of wind power that can be injected into the grid; therefore, the distribution locational marginal prices reduce throughout the network significantly.

Yes / In this paper, a novel deterministic approach for the planning of active distribution networks within a distribution market environment considering multi-configuration of wind turbines (WTs) and photovoltaic (PV) cells is proposed. Multi-configuration multi-period market-based optimal power flow is utilized for maximizing social welfare taking into account uncertainties associated with wind speed, solar irradiance and load demand as well as different operational status of WTs and PVs. Multi-period scenarios method is exploited to model the aforementioned uncertainties. The proposed approach assesses the effect of multiple-configuration of PVs and WTs on the amount of wind and solar power that can be produced, the distribution locational marginal prices all over the network and on the social welfare. The application of the proposed approach is examined on a 30-bus radial distribution network. / This work was supported in part by the Royal Academy of Engineering Distinguished Visiting Fellowship Grant DVF1617/6/45 and by the University of Bradford, UK under the CCIP grant 66052/000000.

In this thesis, the impact of conservation banking on biodiversity is assessed by examining the bird species richness in U.S. counties that have implemented the policy. Conservation banking is a market-based instrument designed for developers who need to comply with the Endangered Species Act for the negative environmental impacts that their projects have made. Conservation banking aims to “protect and recover imperilled species and the ecosystems upon which they depend” (USFWS 2013, p. 1). In this thesis, a staggered difference-in-difference with differential timing by Goodman-Bacon (2018) and further developed by Callaway and Sant’Anna (2021) is used to estimate the effect of conservation banks on biodiversity. Data for biodiversity, bird species richness are collected from U.S. Geological Survey's data from the North American Breeding Bird Survey (BBS). Information on conservation banks is gathered from the Regulatory In-lieu fee and Bank Information Tracking System (RIBITS). This thesis focuses on 107 conservation banks in 53 counties in the U.S. established between 2005 and 2016. The main results from this study indicate a positive impact of the introduction of conservation banks, with an increase in biodiversity of 4,1%. Consequently, this confirms the positive effect of the policy intervention. Despite these results, it is vital to consider caution regarding this market-based instrument. Market-based instruments that commodify elements of nature into the market are a new frontier in capitalist expansion. This approach may exclude areas from the natural evolutionary selection process, leading to potential long-term ecological imbalances. Current payment structures in conservation banking can lead to misallocation of taxpayers’ money at the same time as biodiversity outcomes are not optimized. Therefore, the most fundamental recommendation for this policy is to change to outcome-based payments.