The common marmoset is the most frequently used New World primate in laboratory research and testing. In the UK, their use is strictly controlled by the Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act, which is underpinned by the principles of humane science: Replacement, Reduction and Refinement. Despite their use, there are a number of problems associated with the breeding of marmosets, including low dam longevity and increasing litter sizes. Large litters have led to high infant mortality and the need for human intervention to improve infant survival, which involves removal from the family for substantial periods of time. Previous research in a range of primate species shows that early life family separation is associated with numerous adverse behavioural and physiological effects. This project therefore sought to systematically investigate the effects of breeding and infant rearing practices, integrating a number of measures to assess the welfare of laboratory- housed marmosets. Potential predictors of dam longevity and litter size were first identified in three captive UK colonies, over four decades. Dam longevity was found to be approximately 6 years, with heavier dams living longer, but overall there was no consistent improvement in longevity over the decades. As longevity varied widely between colonies and over time, environment may be one of the most important factors. Approximately half of all births at each colony were litters larger than two, and these larger litters had greater infant mortality. Only dam weight at conception was useful in predicting litter size, with heavier dams producing larger litters. The consequences of large litters and early separation from the family for supplementary feeding were then investigated. Although twins had lower body weight than 2stays (two infants remaining with the family after death of the other littermate/s) and supplementary fed triplets, they also had the fewest health problems. There was also some evidence that animals from larger litters were more at risk of suffering from extreme low weight. Some minor differences were found in behavioural development between litter sizes. Singleton infants received more rejective rearing, while 2stays received more protective rearing, perhaps following the loss of an infant. While twin infants gained independence earlier than singletons or 2stays, they did not appear to cope better with stress in adulthood, displaying more significant increases in stress-related behaviour following the routine stressor of capture and weighing, compared to 2stays and supplementary fed triplets. While overall cortisol unexpectedly decreased from baseline to post capture, there were only significant fluctuations in 2stay marmosets. Instead, there were some increases in positive behaviour in supplementary fed triplets following the stressor, suggesting enhanced coping ability. However, in another group of supplementary fed triplets, there were subtle increases in depressive-like symptoms, measured using cognitive bias and preference tests, suggesting a reduced expectation of and interest in rewards. There were however no differences between family-reared and supplementary fed marmosets in time to learn a visual discrimination task, or in responses to temperament tests. Therefore, while it was hypothesised that early family separation would have adverse developmental consequences, there were actually very little differences between marmosets of different litter sizes and rearing backgrounds, across the range of measures. Results suggest that the current supplementary feeding programme, along with a regular human socialisation programme, minimises any potential negative effects. However, we should always be finding ways to improve the lives of animals in our care. Possible Refinements include reducing dam weight to increase twin births and improve infant survival, and training to allow supplementary feeding on the carrier’s back, to prevent infant separation and reduce disruption to the family. These Refinements could reduce fear and allow monkeys to become more resilient to the laboratory environment.

No description available.

Some mounted ill. Bibliography: leaves 191-226.

Thesis (Ph. D. in Neuroscience)--Vanderbilt University, Aug. 2008. / Title from title screen. Includes bibliographical references.

No description available.

The social transmission of social behaviours in nonhuman primates has been understudied, experimentally, relative to instrumental, food-related behaviours. This is disproportional in relation to the comparatively high percentage of potential social traditions reported in wild primates. I report a systematic survey of the social learning literature and provide quantitative evidence of the discrepancy (Watson and Caldwell, 2009). Addressing the identified deficit in experimental work on social behaviours, I also report three empirical studies investigating the contagious nature of affective states in captive, socially housed marmosets. I carried out an observational study, to determine whether marmosets are influenced by spontaneously produced neighbour calls to perform a range of behaviours associated with similar affect. My results supported a neighbour effect for anxiety in marmosets. Consistent with previous findings for chimpanzees (Baker and Aureli, 1996; Videan et al., 2005), I also found evidence for neighbour effects for aggression and affiliation (Watson and Caldwell, 2010). Through experimental playback, I investigated contingent social contagion in the auditory and visual modalities. The playback of pre-recorded affiliative (chirp) calls was found to be associated with marmosets spending increased time in a range of affiliative behaviours. Playback of video showing conspecifics engaged in a positive affiliative behaviour (allogrooming) also appeared to cause marmosets to spend longer performing various affiliative behaviours. My results indicate that social contagion of affiliation is a multi-modal phenomenon in marmosets and also represent the first evidence that allogrooming is visually contagious in primates. Sapolsky (2006) conceptualised culture as the performance of species-typical behaviours to an unusual extent, termed ‘social culture’. Researchers have yet to directly investigate a transmission mechanism. I investigated whether a social culture of increased affiliation could be initiated in marmosets through the long-term playback, of positive calls, or of video of positive behaviour. The results were consistent with a relatively long-lasting influence of the playback of affiliative calls across several affiliative behaviours. The effect appeared to last substantially beyond the specific hours of playback, between playbacks, and after playback had ceased, potentially indicating a temporary shift in social culture. These results are preliminary but provide some support for the proposal that auditory social contagion may be a transmission mechanism for social culture. The long-term video playback of allogrooming appeared to result in a transitory shift in performance of the identical behaviour (increased allogrooming) after playbacks had ceased. In addition to theoretical implications for social cognition and social culture, my findings have potential practical application for the enhancement of welfare in captive marmosets through sensory, and non-contact social, enrichment.

Endometriose (EM) ist eine häufige gynäkologische Erkrankung, die bei betroffenen Frauen unter anderem mit chronischen Unterleibsschmerzen und Unfruchtbarkeit einhergeht (VALLE 2002). Bisher war es bei den zur Forschung verwendeten Modelltieren für EM (z.B. Rhesusaffe, ZONDERVAN et al. 2004; Weißbüschelaffe, EINSPANIER et al. 2006) nicht möglich festzustellen, ob bei ihnen schmerzhafte Beeinträchtigungen durch die Erkrankung bestehen. Um die Auswirkungen neuer Therapeutika auf das Wohlbefinden der Patientinnen bewerten zu können, werden Methoden benötigt, mit denen EM bedingte Beeinträchtigungen der Modelltiere dargestellt werden können. Daher war es das Ziel dieser Studie, bei einem Primatenmodell für EM, dem Weißbüschelaffen, neue nicht invasive Testsysteme zu etablieren, die zur Darstellung von EM bedingten Schmerzen und Beeinträchtigungen geeignet sind. Unter der Annahme, dass schmerzhafte Erkrankungen das Verhalten (WALLACE et al. 1990), die Beweglichkeit (FLECKNELL 1986) sowie die kognitiven Fähigkeiten (SMITH et al. 2006) der betroffenen Tiere beeinträchtigen können, wurden drei nicht invasive Testsysteme auf ihre Eignung untersucht, Schmerzen bei an EM erkrankten Weißbüschelaffen im Vergleich zu Kontrolltieren darzustellen. Zur Untersuchung des Verhaltens wurde die Videoüberwachung, für die motorischen Fähigkeiten der Futterbaum (modifiziert nach ROBERTS et al. 1993) und für die kognitiven Fähigkeiten der Wisconsin General Test Apparatus (WGTA, HARLOW 1949) sowie der Futterbaum verwendet. Im ersten Abschnitt dieser Studie wurde das Normalverhalten von neun Weißbüschelaffenpaaren per Videokamera über den gesamten Tagesverlauf von zwölf Stunden aufgezeichnet und unter anderem in Bezug auf Aktivität, soziale und eigene Körperpflege sowie Futter- und Wasseraufnahme analysiert. Der Verlauf der Tagesaktivität zeigte drei Maxima zwischen 7:00 und 8:00 Uhr, 11:00 und 12:00 Uhr sowie 14:00 und 15:00 Uhr, dabei war die ansteigende Aktivität als Futtersuchverhalten vor den Mahlzeiten zu werten. Das im ersten Abschnitt der Studie dargestellte Aktivitätsmuster wurde im zweiten Abschnitt verwendet, um die Versuche mit WGTA und Futterbaum besser in den Tagesverlauf der Tiere einzuordnen und darüber ihre Kooperativität zu steigern. Die Tiere führten die Tests immer zur gleichen Tageszeit durch, deshalb wurde somit eine optimale Vergleichbarkeit und Homogenität der Ergebnisse gewährleistet. Bei der Auswertung der Videodokumentation im zweiten Abschnitt dieser Studie zeigte sich, dass erkrankte Weibchen ihren Partner im Gegensatz zu den Kontrolltieren gar nicht pflegen (p=0,029) und die Aktivität der erkrankten Weibchen zwar deutlich, aber nicht signifikant (p=0,057) verringert war. Diese verringerte Aktivität ist möglicherweise ein Hinweis auf Schmerzen der an EM erkrankten Weibchen, während die nicht vorhandene soziale Körperpflege den partnerschaftlichen Problemen betroffener Frauen entsprechen könnte. In den ersten beiden kognitiven Tests mit dem WGTA führten die erkrankten Weibchen signifikant weniger Versuche pro Tag durch als die Kontrolltiere (p=0,006/ p=0,008). Darüber hinaus benötigten die erkrankten Tiere signifikant mehr Versuche, um den ersten Test zu verstehen (p=0,008). Diese Unterschiede zu den Kontrolltieren ließen sich in den folgenden drei Versuchsabschnitten nicht mehr nachweisen. Daraus lässt sich ableiten, dass die Weibchen mit EM sich schlecht auf neue Anforderungen einstellen und sich weniger lange auf eine gestellte Aufgabe konzentrieren können. Nach der International Primatological Society (MC CANN et al. 2007) kann eine verminderte Fähigkeit, sich auf neue Situationen einzustellen, als Anzeichen für Beeinträchtigungen gewertet werden. Bei der Auswertung der Futterbaum Testreihen, in denen sowohl kognitive als auch motorische Fähigkeiten der Tiere mit einer Art „Kletterbaum“ überprüft wurden, ergaben sich demgegenüber keine signifikanten Unterschiede zwischen der EM-Gruppe und den Kontrolltieren. Zusammenfassend eignen sich die Videodokumentation und der WGTA zur Darstellung von Beeinträchtigungen bei an EM erkrankten Weißbüschelaffen. Die beiden Testsysteme können in folgenden pharmakologischen Studien verwendet werden, um erstmals die Auswirkungen neuer Therapeutika auf das Wohlbefinden der Modelltiere zu bewerten. Zusätzlich ermöglichen die Ergebnisse dieser Studie ein Refinement (RUSSELL und BURCH 1959), da die bisher verwendeten invasiven Methoden (Laparoskopie, Laparotomie) zur Bewertung des Verhaltens der EM Läsionen unter einer Therapie ergänzt und sogar ersetzt werden könnten. / Endometriosis (EM) is a common gynecological disease, which is known to cause chronic pelvic pain and infertility in women (VALLE 2002). Up to now, it was not possible to assess, whether the animal models for research (e.g. rhesus macaque, ZONDERVAN et al. 2004; common marmoset, EINSPANIER et al. 2006) suffer from pain or impairments due to the disease. Therefore, new test systems are needed to obtain pain and discomfort in animal models for EM to enable the validation of new therapeutic agents with a view to the patients well being. It was the aim of this study, to establish new non invasive test systems to investigate signs of discomfort in an animal model for EM, the marmoset monkey. Assuming that painful diseases can influence the behaviour (WALLACE et al. 1990), the mobility (FLECKNELL 1986) and the cognitive abilities (SMITH et al. 2006) of animals, three non invasive test systems were reviewed for their ability to detect EM associated pain in common marmosets. They were based on behaviour (videotaping), mobility and exploratory behaviour (food tree, modified after ROBERTS et al. 1993) and cognitive abilities (Wisconsin General Test Apparatus (HARLOW 1949) and food tree). In the first part of this study, the daily activity patterns, allo- and autogrooming as well as water and food intake of nine common marmoset couples were monitored over a 12-hour light phase by video recording. The animals showed a trimodal course of activity per day with maxima from 7:00-8:00h, 11:00-12:00h and 15:00-16:00h. These activity maxima represented foraging behaviour, as they were followed by frequent food intake phases. The knowledge of the daily activity patterns allowed to optimize the experimental conditions for the tasks with the food tree and the Wisconsin General Test Apparatus (WGTA; HARLOW 1949) in the second part of this study. As every animal solved the tasks at the same time of day, the comparability and homogeneity of the results were optimized. By analysing the video documentation in the second part of this study, the females with EM, in contrast to the control females, did not show any social grooming behaviour (p=0.029). Furthermore, their activity level was almost significantly decreased (p=0.057). This reduced activity could indicate towards pain in the diseased females, while the lack of social grooming is similar to partnership problems in diseased women. The WGTA tasks revealed, that the females with EM performed significantly less trials per day in the first two settings (p=0.006/ p=0.008) and needed more trials to solve the first setting than the control animals (p=0.008). Those differences between diseased females and control animals were not detectable in the following three settings of the WGTA tasks. These results demonstrate, that EM affected marmosets have difficulties to concentrate on cognitive tasks and to cope with new situations. According to the International Primatological Society (MC CANN et al. 2007), these difficulties to cope with new situations can be interpreted as signs of distress. The food tree, a kind of jungle gym, was used to assess the animals` cognitive abilities as well as their mobility, but there were no significant differences between the EM diseased females and the control animals. In conclusion, the videotaping and the WGTA are suitable methods to demonstrate signs for impairments due to EM in marmoset monkeys. In following pharmacological studies, both test systems will allow to evaluate the benefit of new therapeutic agents on the animal model`s well being. In addition, the results of this study can help to refine procedures by replacing invasive methods like laparotomy according to the Refinement of RUSSELL and BURCH (1959).

The effects of variations in the predictability of appetitive events, such as feeding, have rarely been studied in animals in general or primates in particular. Feeding animals on highly predictable temporal schedules often results in the performance of food anticipatory activity (FAA), characterised by increased arousal and activity and thought to be detrimental to welfare. Temporally unpredictable feeding schedules have been interpreted as resulting in improved welfare. However, if feeding is made unpredictable by preceding it with an unreliable signal, it may result in frustration and aggression. It is suggested here that two distinct but overlapping types of predictability exist. 'Temporal' predictability describes whether an event occurs at fixed or variable intervals, whereas 'signalled' predictability relates to the reliability of a signal preceding the event. This thesis examines the effects of each of these types of predictability in relation to feeding. Welfare was assessed in laboratory-housed common marmosets( Callithrix jacchus) using behavioural measures, which were identified in the context of the routine stressor of human handling and weighing. The signalled and temporal predictability of presentation of a desirable titbit was subsequently experimentally manipulated. It was found that temporally unpredictable presentation of food, preceded by an unreliable signal, was associated with substantially increased stress-related behaviours in this species. If no signal was used, stress increased to a moderate level, but if the food delivery followed a reliable signal there were few behavioural changes compared to control animals. Temporally predictable feeding, without a signal, was associated with lower rates of stress-related behaviour than temporally unpredictable, unsignalled feeding. However, deviations from this temporally predictable schedule, representing delays to feeding, resulted in marked increases in stress. The results were confirmed with a further study, worked around existing feeding routines and using a different primate species, the stump-tailed macaque (Macaca arctoides). Based on these findings it is suggested that the most beneficial schedule for feeding captive primates is a temporally unpredictable one, which appears to buffer animals against the negative effects of delays as well as minimising FAA. Presentation of a reliable signal before food delivery appears to minimise the stress intrinsically associated with a temporally unpredictable routine. These recommendations represent a simple and inexpensive method of improving the welfare of captive primates.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:28:24Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2008-09-09Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T18:34:32Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 ferraz_mc_me_botfmvz.pdf: 399542 bytes, checksum: dbf5e0181962afd1eb21aa3cc887f0ef (MD5) / Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP) / Os objetivos do presente trabalho foram avaliar o efeito da própolis sobre o peso e parâmetros comportamentais de saguis Callithrix sp mantidos em cativeiro e submetidos ao estresse. Foram utilizados 26 animais da espécie Callithrix jacchus (sagüi-de-tufo-branco) e Callithrix penicillata (sagüi-de-tufo-preto), com idade entre 8 e 18 meses, de ambos os sexos, os quais foram divididos em três tratamentos: T1- dieta de rotina; T2- dieta de rotina acrescida de 2% de própolis bruta e T3- dieta de rotina acrescida de 5% de própolis bruta da alimentação em relação ao consumo diário estimado por indivíduo. Os animais foram alimentados durante sete dias com ou sem o acréscimo de própolis (momento 1). Após este período, os animais continuaram recebendo o mesmo esquema alimentar e foram submetidos ao estresse intruso x residente, durante sete dias (momento 2), totalizando 14 dias. Em ambos os momentos foram avaliados os parâmetros comportamentais (brincadeiras social e lúdica, vocalização, catação e deslocamento) e a manutenção do peso dos animais. De acordo com os resultados obtidos pode-se concluir que a adição da própolis na dieta de sagüis mantidos em cativeiro promoveu maior ganho de peso nos animais, embora não tenha apresentado efeito na redução do estresse, avaliado através de parâmetros comportamentais. Sugere-se, no entanto, a necessidade de novas pesquisas no sentido de estudar outras concentrações de própolis e maiores tempos de observação dos animais. / The aim of the present work was to evaluate the effects of propolis on the weight and behavioral parameters of Callithrix sp marmosets kept in captivity and subjected to stress. Twenty-six Callithrix jacchus (white-tuffed-ear marmoset) and Callithrix penicillata (black-tuffed ear marmoset), aged between 8 and 18 months, males and females, were divided into three treatment groups: T1- routine diet; T2- routine diet added of 2% crude propolis and T3- routine diet added of 5% crude propolis from daily diet, in relation to estimated daily consumption per individual. Animals were fed during seven days with or without the addition of propolis (moment 1). After this period, they continued receiving the same diet scheme and were subjected to intrusive x resident stress for seven days (moment 2), in 14 days of experiment. In both moments, behavioral parameters (social and playful activities, vocalization, catching and moving) and weight were evaluated. According to the obtained results, the addition of propolis to the diet of marmosets kept in captivity leads to greater weight gain in the animals although it had no effect on stress reduction, which was evaluated through behavioral parameters. Thus, there is the need for additional studies using other propolis concentrations and longer observation times.

abstract: As an evolutionary force, hybridization outcomes include introgression, admixture, speciation, and reproductive isolation. While hybridization has been studied in several primates, the marmoset genus Callithrix is an important, but little studied example of Neotropical hybridization. Varying degrees of reproductive isolation exist between Callithrix species, and hybridization occurs at species borders or regions containing introduced and native species. Interbreeding between Callithrix species carries important implications for biodiversity and genetic integrity within the genus. However, species origins and levels of genetic admixture in marmoset hybrid zones are generally unknown, and few population genetic studies of individual Callithrix species exist. Using the mitochondrial control region and 44 microsatellite markers, this work explored the genetic diversity and species origins of two C. penicillata and C. jacchus hybrid zones, as well as genetic diversity and divergence in the parental species. Both marker types showed that C. penicillata is more genetically diverse than C. jacchus. Based on mtDNA, C. jacchus seems to have experienced a past population expansion and C. penicillata evolved under constant population size. The data revealed the existence of a previously undocumented natural hybrid zone along the São Francisco River in NE Brazil and confirmed species origins of an anthropogenic zone in Rio de Janeiro state. The data also showed much lower levels of admixture and genetic diversity within the natural hybrid zone than in the anthropogenic zone. Further, the data suggested that the São Francisco River is an important geographic barrier to gene flow in the natural hybrid zone. On the other hand, admixture patterns within the anthropogenic hybrid zone suggested collapse of reproductive barriers, and the formation of a hybrid marmoset swarm. Thus, this work suggested different evolutionary dynamics in anthropogenic vs. natural animal hybrid zones. Restriction Associated DNA sequencing (RADseq) identified a large number of single nucleotide polymorphisms within C. jacchus and C. penicillata genomes. These preliminary data were used to measure intraspecific genomic diversity and interspecific divergence. In the future, RADseq will be used to study genus-wide diversity of Callithrix species, examine past and present marmoset demographic history, and applied to the evolutionary study of marmoset hybridization. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Biology 2013