Thesis (MEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2015. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The Western Cape is one of the most seismically active regions in South Africa. It features geological properties which can develop earthquakes as large as 6.87 on the Richter scale. This poses a serious threat to all of the buildings that are currently located within this region. A recent study has found that typical three-storey Unreinforced Masonry (URM) buildings in the Cape Town area shows a high probability of failure or damage if subjected to such a large earthquake. Many of these buildings can be found in an area of Cape Town called the Cape Flats, housing approximately 11 000 individuals. The structural integrity of these buildings are of concern to engineers since it houses a number of individuals. The purpose of the study was to develop a risk assessment procedure that could be used to assess low-rise multi-storey (2, 3 and 4 storeys) URM buildings in order to determine where the risk of earthquake related damage would be the highest. The risk assessment procedure compared various characteristics regarding the buildings, residents, seismic attributes of the region and the recovery capability of the residents. The result, in the form of a risk rating, enabled the buildings to be prioritized according to their seismic risk. The aim was to develop a comparative model which could be applied to a range of buildings, indicating where the impact of an earthquake would be greatest. This result could then be used for further remedial action (such as retrofitting) where it is needed the most. The risk assessment procedure used an Earthquake Risk Assessment Model (ERAM) which was specifically developed to assess the earthquake risk of each building with the use of 26 factors. These factors would each be individually scored and through the ERAM model would produce a risk rating. The buildings' can then be ranked (prioritized) according to it's risk rating to determine where remedial actions or procedures are needed first. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die Wes-Kaap is een van die mees seismiese aktiewe streke in Suid-Afrika. Dit bevat geologiese eienskappe wat aardbewings met groottes van 6,87 op die Richterskaal kan laat ontwikkel (1 in 475 jaar herhaal periode). Dit hou 'n bedreiging vir baie die geboue wat tans in hierdie streek geleë is. 'n Onlangse studie het bevind dat tipiese drie-verdieping lasdraende steengeboue in die omgewing van Kaapstad 'n hoë waarskynlikheid van faling of skade toon as dit blootgestel word aan 'n groot aardbewing. Baie van hierdie geboue kan gevind word in 'n gebied van Kaapstad genaamd die Kaapse Vlakte, wat vir ongeveer 11 000 individue behuising bied. Die strukturele integriteit van hierdie geboue is van belang aangesien dit 'n groot aantal individue huisves. Die doel van die studie was om 'n risiko-evaluerings proses te ontwikkel wat gebruik kan word om multi-verdieping (2, 3 en 4 verdiepings) lasdraende steengeboue te evalueer ten opsigte van aardbewing verwante skade. Die risiko-evaluering proses vergelyk verskeie kenmerke van die geboue, die inwoners, seismiese eienskappe van die streek en die vermoë van die inwoners om terug te keer na hul alledaagse leefstyl. Die resultaat is in die vorm van 'n risiko-gradering, wat die gebruiker in staat stel om die geboue te prioritiseer volgens hul aardbewings risiko. Die doel was om 'n vergelykende model te ontwikkel wat toegepas kan word om 'n verskeidenheid van geboue te evalueer, en aan te dui waar die impak van 'n aardbewing die grootste sal wees. Hierdie resultaat kan dan gebruik word vir verdere remediërende optrede of prosedures soos versterkings. Die risiko-evaluerings proses gebruik 'n "Earthquake Risk Assessment Model" (ERAM) wat spesifiek ontwikkel is om die aardbewings-risiko van elke gebou te evalueer met die gebruik van 26 faktore. Hierdie faktore word elkeen individueel beoordeel en 'n risiko-gradering word verkry met behulp van die ERAM model. Die geboue kan dan geprioritiseer word volgens elkeen se risiko-gradering om te bepaal waar daar remediërende optrede nodig is.

Η εκπόνηση της Διατριβής Διπλώματος Ειδίκευσης με τίτλο «Η Μονή Στροφάδων : Αποτύπωση – Παθολογία – Προδιαγραφές Αποκατάστασης» είχε ως στόχο τη συνοπτική προσέγγιση και παρουσίαση του προβλήματος του μοναστηριακού συγκροτήματος Στροφάδων. Η εργασία αυτή δεν αποσκοπεί στο να δώσει πρακτική λύση στο πρόβλημα αποκατάστασης του μοναστηριού καθώς κάτι τέτοιο δε θα ήταν εύκολο να πραγματοποιηθεί στο πλαίσια μιας μεταπτυχιακής εργασίας. Στο πρώτο κεφάλαιο της εργασίας γίνεται μια συνοπτική αναδρομή της ιστορίας της μονής με αναφορά στα σημαντικότερα γεγονότα από την ίδρυσή της έως σήμερα. Επίσης, γίνεται αναφορά στην πνευματική, πολιτισμική και αμυντική αξία της μονής. Το δεύτερο κεφάλαιο της εργασίας αποτελεί την αρχιτεκτονική τεκμηρίωση. Καταρχήν αναφέρεται σε συντομία η υστεροβυζαντινή αρχιτεκτονική των μοναστηριών, οι τύποι ναών και τα υλικά δόμησης. Στη συνέχεια γίνεται η περιγραφή του μοναστηριακού συγκροτήματος, του πύργου και των κτισμάτων όλων των πτερύγων. Η περιγραφή αυτή γίνεται καλύτερα κατανοητή μέσα από τα σχέδια κατόψεων και τομών που παρουσιάζονται στο τέλος του κεφαλαίου. Στο τρίτο κεφάλαιο περιγράφονται οι φάσεις κατασκευής του μνημείου : υστεροβυζαντινή, η φάση Ενετοκρατίας και η νεότερη, με τα κτίσματα που περιλαμβάνει η καθεμιά, καθώς και τα χρησιμοποιούμενα υλικά και τρόποι δόμησης. Στο τέταρτο κεφάλαιο δίνεται μια εικόνα της παθολογίας του μοναστηριακού συγκροτήματος με αναφορά στις φθορές εξωτερικών τοίχων και εσωτερικού. Ακόμα, καταγράφεται η παθολογία των υλικών κατασκευής λίθων, πλίνθων, κονιαμάτων, καθώς και τα αίτια φθοράς των κτισμάτων της μονής. Στο πέμπτο κεφάλαιο της εργασίας παρουσιάζονται οι βασικές προδιαγραφές για την αποκατάσταση της μονής : Προδιαγραφές αρχιτεκτονικής και δομοστατικής μελέτης, προδιαγραφές μελέτης παθολογίας υλικών, αξιολόγηση της υφιστάμενης κατάστασης, προτάσεις συντήρησης, προσδιορισμός χρήσεων για το μνημείο και προτάσεις προσαρμογής των χρήσεων στο μνημείο. Τέλος αναφέρονται τα συμπεράσματα που προέκυψαν κατά την εκπόνηση της Διατριβής Διπλώματος Ειδίκευσης. Το κύριο συμπέρασμα η είναι η άμεση αποκατάσταση των κτισμάτων της μονής Στροφάδων. Η αποκατάσταση αυτή θα πρέπει να αποτελεί έργο υπεύθυνης και συντονισμένης προσπάθειας μιας ομάδας αναστηλωτών που θα σέβονται την ιστορική και αρχιτεκτονική αξία του μνημείου. Επίσης, οι επεμβάσεις θα πρέπει να σχεδιαστούν έτσι, ώστε να διατηρείται η αρχιτεκτονική και κατασκευαστική ταυτότητα του μνημείου. / The elaboration of the thesis entitled “ Monastery of Strofades : Survey – Pathology – Outline of Restoration “ aims at the brief approach and presentation of the problem of the monastery of Strofades. This thesis does not aim at giving a practical solution to the problem of restoration of the monastery since the latter is difficult to be achieved in terms of postgraduate studies. In the first chapter, a brief retrospection of the history of the monastery takes place with reference to the most significant events from its establishment till today. Moreover, this thesis refers to cultural and defensive value of the monastery. The second chapter constitutes the architectural presumption. Firstly, it is made a brief reference to the metabyzantine architecture of monasteries, the types of temples and the constructing materials. Then, a description of the monastery, the tower and the other parts of the construction takes place. This description can be better understood through the designs of the ground plans presented at the end of the chapter. In the third chapter, are different phases of the construction of the monument, the metabyzantine phase, the Venetian phase and the modern one together with the constructions placed at each phase as well as the materials used and the ways of construction. In the fourth chapter of this thesis, it is given a picture of the pathology of the monastery with reference to the damages of both the exterior walls and the interior. Moreover, the pathology of the constructing materials, stones, bricks and mortars, and the causes of damages of the construction of the monastery as well as listed. In the fifth chapter, are presented the basic prescriptions for the restoration of the monastery. Prescriptions of the architectural study, of the pathology of the materials, evaluation of the existing situation, proposals of maintenance, determination of usages for the monument as well as proposals of adaptation of those usages to the latter. To sum up, the conclusions drawn from this thesis are mentioned in the end. The main conclusion is that it is needed the immediate restoration of the construction of the monastery of Strofades. This restoration should constitute a work of responsible and coordinated effort of a group of restorers who will respect the historical and architectural value of the monument. Last but not least, the interventions must be designed in such way so as to preserve the architectural and structural identity of the monument.

This study focuses on the evaluation of seismic safety of masonry buildings in Turkey by using fragility curves. Fragility curves for masonry buildings are generated by two behavior modes for load bearing walls: in-plane and out-of-plane. By considering the previous research and site investigations, four major parameters have been used in order to classify masonry buildings with in-plane behavior mode. These are number of stories, strength of load-bearing wall material, regularity in plan and the arrangement of walls (required length, openings in walls, etc.). In addition to these four parameters, floor type is also taken into account for the generation of fragility curves by considering out-of-plane behavior mode. During generation of fragility curves, a force-based approach has been used. In this study there exist two limit states, or in other words three damage states, in terms of base shear strength for in-plane behavior mode and flexural strength for out-of-plane behavior mode. To assess the seismic vulnerability of unreinforced masonry buildings in Turkey, generated fragility curves in terms of in-plane behavior, which is verified by damage statistics obtained during the 1995 Dinar earthquake, and out-of-plane behavior, which is verified by damage statistics obtained during the 2010 Elazig earthquake, is combined. Throughout the analysis, ground motion uncertainty, material variability and modeling uncertainty have also been considered. In the final part of the study, a single-valued parameter, called as &lsquo / vulnerability score&rdquo / , has been proposed in order to compare the seismic safety of unreinforced masonry buildings in Fatih sub province of Istanbul and to assess the influence of out-of-plane behavior together with the in-plane behavior of these existing masonry buildings.

Αντικείμενο της παρούσας διατριβής είναι ο προσδιορισμός του βαθμού επάρκειας κτιρίων από φέρουσα τοιχοποιία παρουσία σεισμικής έντασης. Στόχος της εργασίας είναι να διερευνηθεί πως επηρεάζεται ο βαθμός σεισμικής επάρκειας μίας κατασκευής από την ύπαρξη διαφράγματος, το πλήθος των ορόφων, το πάχος των τοίχων, το υλικό της τοιχοποιίας, το μέγεθος των ανοιγμάτων και την ασυμμετρία της κάτοψης. Στο Πρώτο Κεφάλαιο, αρχικά, παρουσιάζονται κάποια γενικά στοιχεία για τη φέρουσα τοιχοποιία. Στη συνέχεια, γίνεται αναφορά στον προσδιορισμό των μηχανικών χαρακτηριστικών της τοιχοποιίας. Ακόμα, περιγράφεται η μεθοδολογία για τον έλεγχο των ανεπαρκειών με βάση τον EC8. Τέλος, παρουσιάζεται η μέθοδος του δευτεροβάθμιου προσεισμικού ελέγχου για την εύρεση της ανεπάρκειας ενός κτιρίου. Στο Δεύτερο Κεφάλαιο γίνεται μία σύντομη αναφορά στη παθολογία κατασκευών από φέρουσα τοιχοποιία. Συγκεκριμένα, παρουσιάζονται τα αίτια που προκαλούν βλάβες στις κατασκευές, καθώς επίσης και οι βασικοί τύποι ρωγμών που απαντώνται πιο συχνά στα κτίρια από τοιχοποιία. Στο Τρίτο Κεφάλαιο παρουσιάζονται όλα τα στοιχεία που εισήχθησαν στο πρόγραμμα ETABS για τη δημιουργία κατάλληλου προσομοιώματος. Αρχικά, γίνεται πλήρης αναφορά των γεωμετρικών στοιχείων όλων των υπό εξέταση κτιρίων. Πιο συγκεκριμένα, εξετάζονται τρεις περιπτώσεις κτιρίων: ιδεατά συμμετρικά, ιδεατά ασύμμετρα και πραγματικά κτίρια. Στη συνέχεια, γίνεται αναλυτικός υπολογισμός των μηχανικών χαρακτηριστικών της τοιχοποιίας σύμφωνα με κατάλληλη βιβλιογραφία και παρουσιάζονται οι επιφάνειες επιρροής με τις οποίες προσδιορίστηκαν τα φορτία των κατασκευών. Επιπλέον, γίνεται περιγραφή του τρόπου προσομοίωσης και αναφέρονται λεπτομερώς οι παραδοχές που έγιναν κατά την ανάλυση. Στο Τέταρτο Κεφάλαιο παρουσιάζονται τα αποτελέσματα των αναλύσεων των ιδεατών συμμετρικών κτιρίων. Συγκεκριμένα, παρατίθενται οι ανεπάρκειες που προέκυψαν για την εντός επιπέδου ένταση με βάση τα μέγιστα αποδεκτά όρια του EC8 σε όρους γωνιακών παραμορφώσεων για στάθμη επιτελεστικότητας SD. Στη συνέχεια, διερευνάται η επιρροή της διαφραγματικής λειτουργίας, του πλήθους των ορόφων, του πάχους των τοίχων, του υλικού της τοιχοποιίας και του μεγέθους των ανοιγμάτων στις ανεπάρκειες τους. Στο Πέμπτο & Έκτο Κεφάλαιο παρουσιάζονται τα αποτελέσματα των αναλύσεων για τα ιδεατά ασύμμετρα και τα πραγματικά κτίρια αντίστοιχα. Ομοίως, παρατίθενται οι ανεπάρκειες που προέκυψαν για την εντός επιπέδου ένταση με βάση τα μέγιστα αποδεκτά όρια του EC8 για στάθμη επιτελεστικότητας SD. Στη συνέχεια, διερευνάται η επιρροή της διαφραγματικής λειτουργίας, του πλήθους των ορόφων, του πάχους των τοίχων και του υλικού της τοιχοποιίας στις ανεπάρκειες τους. Στο Έβδομο Κεφάλαιο παρουσιάζονται τα αποτελέσματα των ανεπαρκειών όλων των κτιρίων που προέκυψαν για την εκτός επιπέδου ένταση σύμφωνα με τα όρια των γωνιακών παραμορφώσεων που προτείνει η FEMA 356 για στάθμη επιτελεστικότητας LS. Ομοίως και σε αυτό το κεφάλαιο διερευνάται η επιρροή της διαφραγματικής λειτουργίας, του πλήθους των ορόφων, του πάχους των τοίχων και του υλικού της τοιχοποιίας στις ανεπάρκειες τους. Για τα ιδεατά συμμετρικά κτίρια εξετάζεται επιπλέον και η επιρροή του μεγέθους των ανοιγμάτων στις ανεπάρκειες τους. Στο Όγδοο Κεφάλαιο υπολογίζονται οι δείκτες ανεπάρκειας Η/R όλων των κτιρίων σύμφωνα με τη προσεγγιστική μέθοδο του ΟΑΣΠ. Επίσης, διερευνάται η αξιοπιστία του δείκτη ανεπάρκειας που προκύπτει από το δευτεροβάθμιο προσεισμικό έλεγχο μέσω της σύγκρισής του με τις ανεπάρκειες που προκύπτουν από τον EC8. Στο Ένατο Κεφάλαιο συνοψίζονται τα πιο σημαντικά συμπεράσματα που προέκυψαν από το σύνολο των διερευνήσεων που πραγματοποιήθηκαν στα πλαίσια στης παρούσας εργασίας. Ακολουθεί η βιβλιογραφία και στο τέλος παρατίθενται τα παραρτήματα. / The purpose of this study is to determine the level of competence of masonry buildings subjected to seismic actions. The aim of this project is to investigate how the degree of seismic resistance of a structure is affected by existing diaphragms, the number of floors, the thickness of the walls, the material of the walls, the size of the openings and the symmetry in plan. Some general data for masonry is initially presented in chapter one. Subsequently, reference is made to the determination of the mechanical characteristics of the masonry. Furthermore, the assessment method based on EC8 is described. Finally, the second level pre-earthquake assessment method for masonry buildings is presented. In the second chapter, there is a brief description of the structural characteristics of masonry in relation to expected damaged. In particular, the causes of construction defects are presented as well as the basic types of cracks that can be found more frequently in masonry buildings. The third chapter lists all the data entered into the ETABS computer program to create appropriate simulations. Initially, the geometric data of all investigated buildings is given. More specifically, the following three cases of buildings are examined: idealised symmetric, idealised asymmetric and real buildings. Then, detailed calculations of the mechanical characteristics of masonry based on appropriate literature are performed and include using influence surfaces to determined the loads of the buildings. Moreover, a description of the simulation method and details of the assumptions made in the analysis are given. The fourth chapter presents the results of analyses of the idealised symmetrical buildings. Specifically, the inadequacies are listed that resulted from the specified maximum acceptable limits of EC8 in terms of displacements for the Significant Damage performance level. Then, the influence of diaphragm action, the number of floors, the thickness of the walls, the material of the walls and the size of openings and their deficiencies are investigated. In the fifth and sixth chapters, the results of analyses for idealised asymmetric and actual buildings are presented respectively. Similarly, the inadequacies are listed that resulted from the specified maximum acceptable limits of EC8 for the Significant Damage performance level. Then, the influence of diaphragm action, the number of floors, the thickness of the walls and the masonry type and the size of openings and their deficiencies are examined. The seventh chapter presents the results for all buildings based on the limits of deformations proposed by FEMA 356 for the Life Safety performance level. Similarly, the influence of diaphragm action, the number of floors, the thickness of the walls, building material and their weaknesses are examined. For idealised symmetrical buildings, the influence the size of the openings and their deficiencies are examined further. In chapter eight the deficiency indicator H/R is calculated for all buildings according to the approximate method of EPPO. The reliability failure index resulting from second level pre-earthquake assessment by comparison with the inadequacies arising from the EC8 is also investigated. The ninth chapter summarises the most important conclusions of all investigations carried out by the present project. After the references at the end, annexes are presented.

Αντικείμενο της παρούσας εργασίας αποτελεί ο προσδιορισμός της απόκρισης (σε όρους μετακινήσεων) κτιρίων από φέρουσα τοιχοποιία παρουσία σεισμικής έντασης. Στόχος της διατριβής είναι να διερευνηθεί πως επηρεάζεται η απόκριση μίας κατασκευής από φέρουσα τοιχοποιία από την ύπαρξη διαφραγματικής λειτουργίας, το πλήθος των ορόφων, το πάχος των τοίχων, το είδος του υλικού, το μέγεθος των ανοιγμάτων και την ασυμμετρία της κάτοψης. Για το σκοπό αυτό μελετώνται τρεις τύποι κτιρίων από άοπλη αργολιθοδομή: α) ιδεατά συμμετρικά κτίρια, β) ιδεατά ασύμμετρα κτίρια και γ) πραγματικά κτίρια. Η ανάλυση των κατασκευών γίνεται με χρήση του προγράμματος ETABS 2013, χρησιμοποιώντας στοιχεία επιφανειακών πεπερασμένων στοιχείων (shell elements). Για όλα τα κτίρια που αναλύονται γίνονται οι ίδιες παραδοχές φόρτισης, τυπικού ύψους ορόφου, ποδιάς και πρεκιού. Στο πρώτο κεφάλαιο αναφέρονται κάποια γενικά στοιχεία των κατασκευών από φέρουσα τοιχοποιία και παρατίθενται οι ημιεμπειρικές σχέσεις (Τάσιος, 1986) με τις οποίες γίνεται ο προσδιορισμός των μηχανικών χαρακτηριστικών της τοιχοποιίας (Μέτρο Ελαστικότητας, θλιπτική αντοχή, λόγος Poisson, Μέτρο Διάτμησης). Εν συνεχεία, στο δεύτερο κεφάλαιο περιγράφεται συνοπτικά η παθολογία (αίτια και είδη βλάβης) των κατασκευών από φέρουσα τοιχοποιία. Στο τρίτο κεφάλαιο περιγράφεται η γεωμετρία των κατασκευών μέσω αρχιτεκτονικών σχεδίων, όπου απεικονίζονται οι θέσεις και τα πάχη των εσωτερικών και εξωτερικών φερόντων τοίχων, καθώς επίσης και η θέση και η γεωμετρία των ανοιγμάτων. Επιπλέον, παρατίθενται οι επιφάνειες επιρροής με τις οποίες προσδιορίστηκαν τα φορτία των κατασκευών και υπολογίζονται τα μηχανικά χαρακτηριστικά των φερόντων τοίχων που χρησιμοποιήθηκαν στο πρόγραμμα ETABS. Τέλος, γίνεται περιγραφή του τρόπου προσομοίωσης και αναφέρονται οι παραδοχές που έγιναν κατά την ανάλυση. Στο τέταρτο κεφάλαιο παρουσιάζονται οι μέγιστες μετακινήσεις (εκτός και εντός επιπέδου) για τα ιδεατά συμμετρικά κτίρια. Στη συνέχεια διερευνάται η επιρροή των εξής παραμέτρων: 1) διαφραγματική λειτουργία, 2) πλήθος ορόφων, 3) πάχος τοίχων, 4) υλικό τοιχοποιίας και 5) μέγεθος ανοιγμάτων. Στο πέμπτο κεφάλαιο εξετάζεται η δεύτερη ομάδα κτιρίων που αναφέρεται στα ιδεατά ασύμμετρα κτίρια. Η επιλογή αυτής της ομάδας κτιρίων έγινε προκειμένου να εξεταστεί αν τα συμπεράσματα που προέκυψαν για τα ιδεατά συμμετρικά κτίρια βρίσκουν εφαρμογή και σε κτίρια με μη συμμετρική διάταξη φερόντων τοίχων και ανοιγμάτων. Και για αυτή την ομάδα κτιρίων παρουσιάζονται οι μέγιστες μετακινήσεις (εκτός και εντός επιπέδου) και διερευνάται η επιρροή των εξής παραμέτρων: 1) διαφραγματική λειτουργία, 2) πλήθος ορόφων, 3) πάχος τοίχων και 4) υλικό τοιχοποιίας. Στο έκτο κεφάλαιο παρουσιάζονται τα αποτελέσματα των μέγιστων μετακινήσεων (εκτός και εντός επιπέδου) για την τρίτη ομάδα κτιρίων που αφορά τα πραγματικά κτίρια. Η επιλογή αυτής της ομάδας κτιρίων έγινε προκειμένου να μελετηθεί πως επηρεάζεται η απόκριση μιας υφιστάμενης κατασκευής από την ύπαρξη διαφραγματικής λειτουργίας, το πλήθος ορόφων, το πάχος των τοίχων και το υλικό της τοιχοποιίας. Στο έβδομο κεφάλαιο παρουσιάζονται τα συμπεράσματα που προέκυψαν από τη διερεύνηση της επιρροής των δομικών χαρακτηριστικών κτιρίων από φέρουσα τοιχοποιία στην απόκρισή τους παρουσία σεισμικής διεγέρσεως. Τέλος, παρατίθενται η βιβλιογραφία καθώς και τα παραρτήματα της εργασίας. / The purpose of this study is to determine the response (in terms of displacements) of masonry buildings in the presence of seismic actions. The aim of the thesis is to investigate how the response of a masonry structure is affected by diaphragm action, the number of floors, the wall thickness, the type of material, the size of the openings and the symmetry in plan. For this purpose, three types of buildings constructed from unreinforced rubble stonework are studied: a) idealised symmetrical buildings b) idealised asymmetrically buildings and c) real buildings. Structural analysis is performed through the ETABS program 2013 using finite element surface elements (shell elements). All buildings are analysed using the same loading assumptions and typical heights for floor levels, sills and lintels. The first chapter presents some general aspects of the construction of masonry and lists some semi-empirical relations (Tassios, 1986) which can be used to determine the mechanical characteristics of masonry (modulus of elasticity, compressive strength, Poisson’s ratio, shear modulus). Subsequently, in the second chapter, the causes and types of damage that can be expected with masonry construction are briefly described. The third chapter describes the geometry of the investigated buildings through architectural drawings, which show the position and thickness of internal and external load-bearing walls as well as the location and geometry of openings. Moreover, influence surfaces are listed with which the construction loads are determined and the mechanical characteristics of the load-bearing walls are calculate for use in the ETABS program. Finally, the simulation method and the assumptions that were made for the analysis are described. The fourth chapter presents maximum displacements (in plane and out of plane) for idealised symmetrical buildings. Then the influence of the following parameters is investigated: 1) diaphragm action, 2) number of floors, 3) wall thickness, 4) building material and 5) size of openings. The fifth chapter examines the second group of buildings referred to as idealised asymmetric buildings. The choice of this group of buildings was undertaken in order to determine if the conclusions drawn from the idealised symmetrical buildings can be used for buildings with a non-symmetrical arrangement of load-bearing walls and openings. For this group of buildings, the maximum displacement (in plane and out of plane) is examined and the influence of the following parameters is investigated: 1) diaphragm action, 2) number of floors, 3) wall thickness and 4) building material. The sixth chapter presents the results of maximum displacements (in plane and out of plane) for the third group of buildings, real buildings. The group of buildings was selected in order to study how the response of an existing structure is affected by diaphragm action, the number of floors, the wall thickness and the material of the wall. Chapter seven presents the conclusions of the investigation into the influence of the structural characteristics of masonry buildings in response to the presence of seismic actions. Finally, references are listed and annexes for the work are presented.

There are many advantages of masonry construction like widespread geographic availability in many forms, colors and textures, comparative cheapness, fire resistance, thermal and sound insulation, durability, etc. For such reasons, it is still a commonly used type of residential construction in rural and even in urban regions. Unfortunately, its behavior especially under the effect of earthquake ground motions has not been identified clearly because of its complex material nature. Hence, the masonry buildings with structural deficiencies belong to the most vulnerable class of structures which have experienced heavy damage or even total collapse in previous earthquakes, especially in developing countries like Turkey. This necessitates new contemporary methods for designing safer masonry structures or assessing their performance. Considering all these facts, this study aims at the generation of a new performance-based technique for unreinforced brick masonry structures. First, simplified formulations are recommended to estimate idealized capacity curve parameters of masonry components (piers) by using the finite element analysis results of ANSYS and regression analysis through SPSS software. Local limit states for individual masonry piers are also obtained. Then, by combining the component behavior, lateral capacity curve of the masonry building is constructed together with the global limit states. The final step is to define seismic demand of the design earthquake from the building through TEC2007 method. By using this simple technique, a large population of masonry buildings can be examined in a relatively short period of time noting that the performance estimations are quite reliable since they are based on sophisticated finite element analysis results.

Earthquakes are among natural disasters with significant damage potential / however it is possible to reduce the losses by taking several remedies. Reduction of seismic losses starts with identifying and estimating the expected damage to some accuracy. Since both the design styles and the construction defects exhibit mostly local properties all over the world, damage estimations should be performed at regional levels. Another important issue in disaster mitigation is to determine a robust measure of ground motion intensity parameters. As of now, well-built correlations between shaking intensity and instrumental ground motion parameters are not yet studied in detail for Turkish data. In the first part of this thesis, regional empirical Damage Probability Matrices (DPMs) are formed for Turkey. As the input data, the detailed damage database of the 17 August 1999 Kocaeli earthquake (Mw=7.4) is used. The damage probability matrices are derived for Sakarya, Bolu and Kocaeli, for both reinforced concrete and masonry buildings. Results are compared with previous similar studies and the differences are discussed. After validation with future data, these DPMs can be used in the calculation of earthquake insurance premiums. In the second part of this thesis, two relationships between the felt-intensity and peak ground motion parameters are generated using linear least-squares regression technique. The first one correlates Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) to Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA) whereas the latter one does the same for Peak Ground Velocity (PGV). Old damage reports and isoseismal maps are employed for deriving 92 data pairs of MMI, PGA and PGV used in the regression analyses. These local relationships can be used in the future for ShakeMap applications in rapid response and disaster management activities.

Although performance based assessment procedures are mainly developed for reinforced concrete and steel buildings, URM buildings occupy significant portion of building stock in earthquake prone areas of the world as well as in Turkey. Variability of material properties, non-engineered nature of the construction and difficulties in structural analysis of perforated walls make analysis of URM buildings challenging. Despite sophisticated finite element models satisfy the modeling requirements, extensive experimental data for definition of material behavior and high computational resources are needed. Recently, nonlinear equivalent frame models which are developed assigning lumped plastic hinges to isotropic and homogenous equivalent frame elements are used for nonlinear modeling of URM buildings. The work presented in this thesis is about performance assessment of unreinforced brick masonry buildings in Turkey through nonlinear equivalent frame modeling technique. Reliability of the proposed model is tested with a reversed cyclic experiment conducted on a full scale, two-story URM building at the University of Pavia and a dynamic shake table test on a half scale, two story URM building at the Ismes Laboratory at Bergamo. Good agreement between numerical and experimental results is found. Finally, pushover and nonlinear time history analyses of three unreinforced brick masonry buildings which are damaged in 1995 earthquake of Dinar is conducted using the proposed three dimensional nonlinear equivalent model. After displacement demands of the buildings are determined utilizing Turkish Earthquake Code 2007, performance based assessment of the buildings are done.

The most common form of dwellings in rural and semi-urban areas of India and other developing countries around the globe are one/two storey unreinforced masonry (URM) buildings. It is well known that such masonry buildings are most vulnerable during earthquakes. Out-of-plane flexural failures of walls are primarily responsible for collapse of URM buildings during an earthquake. The seismic performance of such buildings can be improved by reinforcing masonry walls in the horizontal and vertical directions with materials like steel, bamboo or fiber reinforced polymers (FRP). It is fairly easy to reinforce masonry in the horizontal direction by embedding the reinforcement in the bed joints of masonry construction. However, in the vertical direction, the reinforcement is generally provided in the cavities of hollow masonry units, which are grouted after placing the reinforcement. Even though the in-plane performance of masonry walls is enhanced with such a reinforcing technique, it still falls short in resisting out-of-plane lateral loads, as the vertical reinforcement is located close to neutral axis of bending. Hence, a novel technique of reinforcing masonry in the vertical direction on both the faces of the wall called containment reinforcement is proposed recently. Containment reinforcement improves ductility, energy dissipation and prevents overturning failure due to out-of-plane loading. The present study examines the role of containment reinforcement in improving out-of-plane / in-plane behavior of masonry. The research program consisted of characterizing the physical properties of the constituent materials of reinforced masonry, namely stabilized earth blocks, cement-soil-sand (1:1:6) mortar and steel and FRP reinforcement. The strength and elastic properties of masonry assemblages under compression, flexure and shear have been determined. The flexural behavior of three types of reinforced masonry assemblages namely; stretcher bond, English bond and rat-trap bond masonry beams under monotonic and reversed cyclic loading test protocols have been examined. The beams were reinforced with steel, Glass FRP (GFRP) and Carbon FRP (CFRP) materials. In the monotonic test protocol the moment-curvature relationships and ductility for each type of masonry beams were obtained. In the cyclic test protocols, the hysteretic behavior, energy dissipation and equivalent viscous damping characteristics were obtained. The shear behavior of unreinforced and reinforced masonry panels under diagonal tension (shear) was examined through monotonic and cyclic loading test protocols. A simple and cost effective device for producing horizontal to and fro motion to imitate earthquake ground motions, called shock table test facility, has been designed. The table platform is mounted on four wheels and moves on rails. The table is put into the motion through pendulum impacts. The table motion characteristics have been obtained using the parameters used to describe the earthquake ground motions like amplitude, frequency content, duration of the motion and mixed parameters. The parameters of the shock table motion have been compared with few of the recorded earthquake ground motions to evaluate the effectiveness of shock table testing protocol for examining the dynamic performance of scaled masonry building models. The performance of two half scaled containment reinforced masonry building models subjected to base motions provided through shock table and conventional shaking table was evaluated. The dynamic properties of masonry, responses and failure patterns were obtained. A non-linear finite element (FE) model was developed and calibrated using the experimental data generated in the flexural and shear testing of reinforced and unreinforced masonry beams and panels. The FE model was further used for analysis of half scale masonry building model tested on shock table and recalibrated by comparing responses of numerical model with experimentally measured responses. Furthermore, the finite element model was used to assess the performance of two storey unreinforced and containment reinforced symmetric/asymmetric masonry buildings subjected to a series of earthquake ground motions of increasing severity. The studies conducted conclude that the masonry with containment reinforcement was effective in mitigating seismic risks of masonry buildings in moderate to severe seismic regions. The provision of containment reinforcement significantly improved equivalent hysteretic damping at design displacement and offered excellent ductility to masonry elements. The existing construction practice can easily accommodate the provision of containment reinforcement with little modification to the construction sequence. The extra effort in construction does commensurate with the enhancement in the seismic performance of the masonry buildings.

A large amount of low-rise unreinforced masonry structures (URM) can be foundin Groningen, the Netherlands. More and more induced earthquakes with shortduration have been detected in this region due to gas exploitation. Local unreinforcedmasonry (URM) buildings were initially not designed for withstanding seismicactions, so that unexpected damage may occur due to their vulnerability, raising insecurityamong residents. Existing low-rise masonry buildings in Groningen can bedivided into different categories based on their characteristics. Two types of residentialmasonry buildings that fulfil the prerequisites for performing non-linear seismicassessment are chosen to be studied in this thesis project, including the terracedhouse and the detached house.The seismic assessment of structures requires the use of both a discretization methodand a seismic assessment method. The discretization method is used to translate themechanical model into a finite element model used for the numerical analysis. Severalmethods have previously shown to be applicable for seismic assessment, but thiswork investigates the implications of using a continuum model (CM) and an equivalentframe model (EFM) approach to discretization in the general-purpose finiteelement package described in DIANA-FEA-BV (2017). The continuum model approachadopted was in a previous work by Schreppers et al. (2017) validated againstexperimental results and is as such deemed representative of the physical behaviourof the mechanical models investigated. An equivalent frame model approach to beused with DIANA is proposed in the work by Nobel (2017). The continuum modelapproach uses continuum elements with a constitutive model developed for the seismicassessment of masonry structures. This constitutive model captures both shearand flexural failure mechanisms. The equivalent frame model approach uses a combinationof numerically integrated beam elements and nodal interfaces, each witha distinct constitutive model, thus decoupling the description of the flexural andshear behaviour. This approach aims to capture the macro-behaviour at the structurallevel. The applicability of the proposed equivalent frame model approach isevaluated by how well it replicates the validated continuum model approach results.The two discretization methods described are evaluated using two types of seismicassessment methods. The first seismic assessment method used consists of first performinga quasi-static non-linear pushover analysis (NLPO) on the model. Thisresults in the pushover curve, which describes the global behaviour of the modelunder an equivalent lateral load based on the fundamental mode shape of the structure.The pushover curve is then used with the N2-method described in EN1998-1iii(2004) to assess at which peak ground acceleration (PGA) that the model reachesthe near-collapse (NC) limit state. The second seismic assessment method consistsof performing dynamic non-linear time-history analyses (NLTH). This method usesrecorded accelerograms to impose the inertial forces. The PGA for the accelerogramwhere the near-collapse limit state is reached is compared to the PGA fromthe use of the N2-method. The applicability of the pushover analysis in conjunctionwith the N2-method is evaluated by how well it replicates the PGA found from thetime-history analyses and by how well it replicates local failure mechanisms.Therefore, the main objectives of this project can be described by the following twoquestions:i. To what extent can the equivalent frame method be applicable as a properdiscretization method for pushover analyses and time-history analyses oflow-rise unreinforced masonry residential buildings in the Groningen region?ii. To what extent can the non-linear pushover method be adopted toassess the seismic behaviour of low-rise unreinforced masonry residentialbuildings in the Groningen region?The applicability of the equivalent frame model showed to vary. For describing localfailure mechanisms its applicability is poor. Further work on connecting the edgepiers to transverse walls is needed. For seismic assessment using the N2-method theapplicability of the equivalent frame model approach is sensible. The conservativedisplacement capacity counteracts the fact that it is worse at describing local unloading,which produced a larger initial equivalent stiffness of the bi-linear curvesin comparison to the continuum model. For seismic assessment using the timehistorysignals, its applicability is possible. While it could show different behaviourin terms of displacement and damping forces, it still showed a similar PGA at thenear-collapse limit state for the cases at hand.The seismic assessment of the terraced and detached houses by the N2-method issimilar to the seismic prediction by applying time-history analyses. However, thereare still some variations in the initial stiffness, force capacity and displacement capacitybetween these two assessment methods due to the assumptions and limitationsin this study. Overall, considering the pros and cons of the quasi-static pushovermethod, it is deemed applicable during the seismic assessment of the unreinforcedmasonry structures in the Groningen area.