Hundreds of thousands of dollars could be lost due to failures during the fabrication of Trunnion-Hub-Girder (THG) assemblies of bascule bridges. Two different procedures are currently utilized for the THG assembly. Crack formations in the hubs of various bridges during assembly led the Florida Department of Transportation (FDOT) to commission a project to investigate why the assemblies failed. Consequently, a research contract was granted to the Mechanical Engineering department at USF in 1998 to conduct theoretical, numerical and experimental studies. It was found that the steady state stresses were well below the yield strength of the material and could not have caused failure. A parametric finite element model was designed in ANSYS to analyze the transient stresses, temperatures and critical crack lengths in the THG assembly during the two assembly procedures. The critical points and the critical stages in the assembly were identified based on the critical crack length. Furthermore, experiments with cryogenic strain gauges and thermocouples were developed to determine the stresses and temperatures at critical points of the THG assembly during the two assembly procedures. One result revealed by the studies was that large tensile hoop stresses develop in the hub at the trunnion-hub interface in AP1 when the trunnion-hub assembly is cooled for insertion into the girder. These stresses occurred at low temperatures, and resulted in low values of critical crack length. A suggestion to solve this was to study the effect of thickness of the hub and to understand its influence on critical stresses and crack lengths. In addition, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) standards call for a hub radial thickness of 0.4 times the inner diameter while currently a thickness of 0.1 to 0.2 times the inner diameter is used. In this thesis, the geometrical dimensions are changed according to the design of experiments standards to find the sensitivity of these parameters on critical stresses and critical crack lengths during the assembly. Parameters changed are hub radial thickness to trunnion outer diameter ratio, trunnion outer diameter to trunnion bore diameter ratio and variations of the interference. The radial thickness of the hub was found to be the most influential parameter on critical stresses and critical crack lengths.

To assemble the fulcrum of bascule bridges, a trunnion is immersed into liquid nitrogen so that it can be shrunk fit into the hub. This is followed by immersing the resulting trunnion-hub assembly into liquid nitrogen so that it can be then shrunk fit into the girder. On one occasion in Florida, when the trunnion-hub assembly was put into liquid nitrogen, development of cracks on the hub was observed. Experimental and numerical studies conducted since 1998 at University of South Florida show that the cracking took place due to combination of high interference stresses in the trunnion-hub assembly, low fracture toughness of steel at cryogenic temperatures, and steep temperature gradients due to sudden cooling. In this study, we are studying the benefit of staged cooling to avoid cracking in the trunnion-hub assembly when it is cooled down for shrink fitting. We looked at three cooling processes - 1) Direct immersion into liquid nitrogen 2) Immersion into a refrigerated chamber, then liquid nitrogen 3) Immersion into a refrigerated chamber, then a dry-ice/alcohol bath, and finally liquid nitrogen. The geometry of the trunnion-hub assembly was approximated by a composite made of two infinitely long hollows cylinders. The transient problem of temperature distribution and the resulting stresses was solved using finite difference method. Using critical crack lengths and Von-Mises stress as failure criteria, the three cooling processes were compared. The study showed that the minimum critical crack length and stress ratio is increased by as much as 200% when cooling first in refrigerated air followed by liquid nitrogen. However, there is little benefit from adding dry-ice/alcohol as an intermediate step in the cooling process.

<p>The purpose of this study was to develop an analytical model that could be used by the designers of a rotary feeding and cutting system (RFCS) to identify the power demand of the RFCS with limited or no required field or laboratory data. Two separate RFCS were investigated, incorporated with either a low-speed cutting process (LSCP) or a high-speed cutting process (HSCP). The results from the laboratory and field trials were used to create and validate the analytical model.</p> <p>Laboratory tests were completed with the LSCP RFCS and these concluded that counter-knife sharpness, serrations and bevel angle all had significant effects on the specific energy required by the LSCP RFCS when processing cereal straw and alfalfa. The specific energy required by the LSCP RFCS, while processing cereal straw, increased by 0.35 kWâh/tonne (or 96%) when the sharpness of the counter-knives decreased from 0.13 to 0.63 mm (where the sharpness was recorded by the leading-edge-width of the counter-knives). With the same decrease in sharpness, the specific energy required by the LSCP RFCS while processing alfalfa increased by 0.04 kWâh/tonne (or 32%). The specific energy required by the LSCP RFCS while processing cereal straw with sharp counter-knives (counter-knives with a leading edge width of 0.13 mm) increased by 0.11 kWâh/tonne (or 51%) when serrated counter-knives were used instead of un-serrated counter-knives. However, counter-knife serrations did not have a significant effect on the specific energy demand of the LSCP RFCS when sharp counter-knives were used to process alfalfa. The increase in bevel angle from 15 to 90&#x00B0; caused the specific energy required to process cereal straw and alfalfa to approximately triple. The moisture content of alfalfa also had a significant effect on the specific energy required to process alfalfa with the LSCP RFCS. The specific energy demand of the LSCP RFCS was at a maximum when alfalfa at a moisture content of 53% on a wet basis (w.b.) was processed and decreased slightly (approximately 0.04 kWâh/tonne or 10%) when dryer and wetter alfalfa was processed.</p> <p>Field tests were completed with the HSCP RFCS and it was concluded that in general, there was a direct relationship between the specific energy required by the HSCP RFCS and the moisture content of the straw, counter-knife engagement and throughput. Further, it was also concluded that the specific energy requirements of the HSCP RFCS were more sensitive to counter-knife engagement when higher moisture content straw was processed. Depending on the type of chopper used, the specific energy required by the HSCP RFCS increased anywhere from 0.15 to 0.77 kWâh/tonne (or 22 to 61%) when the counter-knife engagement was increased from 0 to 100% (or fully removed to fully engaged). Again, depending on the type of chopper used, when the moisture content of the straw processed by the chopper increased from approximately 7 to 25% w.b. the specific energy required by the chopper increased by 0.14 to 0.96 kWâh/tonne (or 28 to 84%). The effect of throughput on the specific energy demand of the HSCP RFCS was dependent on the type of chopper used. For one of the choppers, an increase in throughput from 10.5 to 13.5 tonne/h caused the specific energy required by the HSCP RFCS to increase by 0.24 kWâh/tonne (or 35%); however for a different chopper, an increase in throughput from 12 to 13 tonne/h caused the specific energy demand of the HSCP RFCS to decrease by 0.16 kWâh/tonne (or 19%).</p> <p>The analytical model was validated using a subset of the data that were collected while employing each cutting device under field conditions and the data collected with the use of a custom-designed material properties test stand. The output of the analytical model fell within the 95% confidence interval of the measured power demand for each of the rotary feeding and cutting systems, and the analytical model was therefore deemed sufficiently accurate.</p> <p>Based on the analytical model, the total power demand of both the LSCP and HSCP rotary feeding and cutting systems was largely attributed to the power required to transport plant material. Further, the power required to transport the plant material along the sides of the counter-knives was much greater than the power required to transport the plant material along the rotor bed and along the leading edge of the tines. Because of the excessive power required to transport plant material along the sides of the counter-knives, three techniques were identified as potential strategies to decrease the power demand of the RFCS. The first technique involved removing half of the tines from the RFCS, and modifying the remaining tines to decrease the amount of plant material that is entrapped between sides of the counter-knives and the tines. The second technique involved coating the inside surface of the tines with a baked Teflon, to decrease the coefficient of friction between the plant material and the RFCS. The third technique involved reshaping the counter-knives, to decrease the surface area over which plant material was transported along the side of the counter-knives. According to the analytical model, employing any of the three techniques would result in the total power demand of the RFCS to decrease by 15 to 26%. </p> <p>For the HSCP RFCS, a stochastic model was developed to identify which of the four choppers tested during field trials would have the best performance when subjected to the same operating conditions. The chopper with the best performance was the WR chopper as its use resulted in the minimum geometric mean length of material exiting the combine harvester while also consuming the least amount of specific energy.</p>

<p>The purpose of this study was to develop an analytical model that could be used by the designers of a rotary feeding and cutting system (RFCS) to identify the power demand of the RFCS with limited or no required field or laboratory data. Two separate RFCS were investigated, incorporated with either a low-speed cutting process (LSCP) or a high-speed cutting process (HSCP). The results from the laboratory and field trials were used to create and validate the analytical model.</p> <p>Laboratory tests were completed with the LSCP RFCS and these concluded that counter-knife sharpness, serrations and bevel angle all had significant effects on the specific energy required by the LSCP RFCS when processing cereal straw and alfalfa. The specific energy required by the LSCP RFCS, while processing cereal straw, increased by 0.35 kWâh/tonne (or 96%) when the sharpness of the counter-knives decreased from 0.13 to 0.63 mm (where the sharpness was recorded by the leading-edge-width of the counter-knives). With the same decrease in sharpness, the specific energy required by the LSCP RFCS while processing alfalfa increased by 0.04 kWâh/tonne (or 32%). The specific energy required by the LSCP RFCS while processing cereal straw with sharp counter-knives (counter-knives with a leading edge width of 0.13 mm) increased by 0.11 kWâh/tonne (or 51%) when serrated counter-knives were used instead of un-serrated counter-knives. However, counter-knife serrations did not have a significant effect on the specific energy demand of the LSCP RFCS when sharp counter-knives were used to process alfalfa. The increase in bevel angle from 15 to 90&#x00B0; caused the specific energy required to process cereal straw and alfalfa to approximately triple. The moisture content of alfalfa also had a significant effect on the specific energy required to process alfalfa with the LSCP RFCS. The specific energy demand of the LSCP RFCS was at a maximum when alfalfa at a moisture content of 53% on a wet basis (w.b.) was processed and decreased slightly (approximately 0.04 kWâh/tonne or 10%) when dryer and wetter alfalfa was processed.</p> <p>Field tests were completed with the HSCP RFCS and it was concluded that in general, there was a direct relationship between the specific energy required by the HSCP RFCS and the moisture content of the straw, counter-knife engagement and throughput. Further, it was also concluded that the specific energy requirements of the HSCP RFCS were more sensitive to counter-knife engagement when higher moisture content straw was processed. Depending on the type of chopper used, the specific energy required by the HSCP RFCS increased anywhere from 0.15 to 0.77 kWâh/tonne (or 22 to 61%) when the counter-knife engagement was increased from 0 to 100% (or fully removed to fully engaged). Again, depending on the type of chopper used, when the moisture content of the straw processed by the chopper increased from approximately 7 to 25% w.b. the specific energy required by the chopper increased by 0.14 to 0.96 kWâh/tonne (or 28 to 84%). The effect of throughput on the specific energy demand of the HSCP RFCS was dependent on the type of chopper used. For one of the choppers, an increase in throughput from 10.5 to 13.5 tonne/h caused the specific energy required by the HSCP RFCS to increase by 0.24 kWâh/tonne (or 35%); however for a different chopper, an increase in throughput from 12 to 13 tonne/h caused the specific energy demand of the HSCP RFCS to decrease by 0.16 kWâh/tonne (or 19%).</p> <p>The analytical model was validated using a subset of the data that were collected while employing each cutting device under field conditions and the data collected with the use of a custom-designed material properties test stand. The output of the analytical model fell within the 95% confidence interval of the measured power demand for each of the rotary feeding and cutting systems, and the analytical model was therefore deemed sufficiently accurate.</p> <p>Based on the analytical model, the total power demand of both the LSCP and HSCP rotary feeding and cutting systems was largely attributed to the power required to transport plant material. Further, the power required to transport the plant material along the sides of the counter-knives was much greater than the power required to transport the plant material along the rotor bed and along the leading edge of the tines. Because of the excessive power required to transport plant material along the sides of the counter-knives, three techniques were identified as potential strategies to decrease the power demand of the RFCS. The first technique involved removing half of the tines from the RFCS, and modifying the remaining tines to decrease the amount of plant material that is entrapped between sides of the counter-knives and the tines. The second technique involved coating the inside surface of the tines with a baked Teflon, to decrease the coefficient of friction between the plant material and the RFCS. The third technique involved reshaping the counter-knives, to decrease the surface area over which plant material was transported along the side of the counter-knives. According to the analytical model, employing any of the three techniques would result in the total power demand of the RFCS to decrease by 15 to 26%. </p> <p>For the HSCP RFCS, a stochastic model was developed to identify which of the four choppers tested during field trials would have the best performance when subjected to the same operating conditions. The chopper with the best performance was the WR chopper as its use resulted in the minimum geometric mean length of material exiting the combine harvester while also consuming the least amount of specific energy.</p>

Arthritis includes many conditions of the joints characterized by inflammation, pain, and loss of joint function that affect 66 million people in the U.S. alone. During arthritic degeneration, chondrocytes exhibit downregulated synthesis of extracellular matrix molecules and upregulation of proteolytic enzymes. Fibrochondrocytes, found in meniscal fibrocartilage, appear to behave in a similar way. Metalloproteinases, including matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) and a disintegrin and metollproteinase with thrombospondin motif (ADAMTS) class enzymes have demonstrated efficient, distinct aggrecan degradation in models of arthritis. ADAMTS-4 and ADAMTS-5 are thought to be primary mediators of pathologic aggrecan catabolism, while MMP-17 may be involved in ADAMTS activation. There is also growing evidence of metalloproteinase-independent mechanisms in aggrecan catabolism. The cysteine endopeptidase m-calpain has been detected in cartilage from arthritic joints, and chondrocytes can secrete this protease. The overall objective of this work was to investigate metalloproteinases and m-calpain as comediators of aggrecan turnover in articular cartilage and meniscal fibrocartilage. The central hypothesis was that metalloproteinases cooperate with m-calpain to mediate cytokine-induced aggrecan turnover and associated changes in tissue mechanics. Experiments involved using inhibitors to perturb protease systems, antibodies targeting aggrecan neoepitopes to characterize enzyme activity, and established methods of evaluating tissue compressive and shear properties. Models of degradation and de novo tissue assembly were used to investigate tissue-specific differences in aggrecan turnover. The results of this work demonstrate tissue-specific differences in the abundance and structure of aggrecan, and indicate that the mechanisms and extent of aggrecan processing in the meniscus is dependent on location within the tissue. The relationships between aggrecan structure and tissue material properties are discussed, along with implications for development, disease, and repair.

To better understand consequences of classical assumptions regarding deformation mechanisms at the mesoscale, experimental observations of mesoscale deformation are presented. In light of actual micrographics of deformed polycrystals, the Von Mises criterion which states that 5 independent plastic deformation sources are needed at each material point to satisfy compatibility is studied, and the consequences of violating this assumption are presented through comprehensive parametric studies. From these studies, it can be concluded that not only are 5 independent plastic deformation sources not needed or observed at each point, but if less than 5 sources are allowed to be active a new physical understanding of a mechanism for kinematic hardening emerges. Furthermore, for enhanced subgrain rotation and evolution the Von Mises criterion must be violated. The second focus of this work is looking at studies, experiments, and models of mesoscale deformation in order to better understand controlling deformation length scales, so that they can be fed into a combined top-down, bottom-up, non-uniform crystal plasticity model that captures the variability provided by the mesoscale during deformation. This can in turn be used to more accurately model the heterogeneity provided by the response of each grain. The length scale intuited from insight into mesoscale deformation mechanisms through observation of experiments and analytical models is the free slip line length of each slip system, which informs non-uniform material parameters in a crystal plasticity model that control the yielding, hardening, and subsequent softening of each individual slip system. The usefulness of this non-uniform multiscale crystal plasticity model is then explored with respect to its ability to reproduce experimentally measured responses at different strain levels for different size grains. Furthermore, a "Mantle-Core" type model which combines both the non-uniform material parameter model and the limited slip model is created, in which the majority of plastic deformation is accommodated near the grain boundary under multi-slip, and uniform plastic deformation occurs in the bulk dominated by double or triple slip. These models are compared for similar levels of hardening, and the pole figures that result from their deformation are compared to experimental pole figures. While there are other models that can capture the heterogeneity introduced by mesoscale deformation at the grain scale, this combined top-down, bottom-up multiscale crystal plasticity model is by far one of the most computationally efficient as the heterogeneity of the mesoscale is does not emerge by introducing higher order terms, but rather by incorporating the heterogeneity into a simple crystal plasticity formulation. Therefore, as computational power increases, this approach will be among the first that will be able to perform accurate polycrystal level modeling while retaining the heterogeneity introduced by non-local mesoscale deformation mechanisms at the sub-grain scale.

Chimpanzees spend ~40% of their day chewing fruits, seeds, and tough leaves and pith, while in contrast modern humans spend significantly less time eating (5%), and the foods that they consume are extremely soft and processed. How have these differences, especially the advent and increasing use of foods processing techniques, influenced masticatory effort and ultimately the morphology of the jaws and teeth? This dissertation addresses this question by measuring the effects that early hominin food processing methods (slicing, pounding, and roasting) have on food material properties, masticatory performance and functional integration of the teeth and jaws. Using standard testing techniques, the material properties of plant tubers and meat were quantified. Processing had contrasting effects on the properties of these foods, and were correlated with masticatory performance changes measured in human experiments. Mechanical processing techniques decreased tuber toughness, leading to lower chew force (CF). Roasting further decreased tuber toughness and other material properties, which led to lower comminution efficiency (CE) and CF. In direct contrast to tubers, mechanical processing techniques did not alter meat toughness, yet did increase CF and CE. Roasting the meat also increased CF and CE, likely because of higher toughness and stiffness, coupled with less elastic energy loss. The generation of lower masticatory forces resulting from processing have undoubtedly affected cranio-dental morphology. In particular, it is hypothesized that forces functionally integrate the masticatory system, and reduced forces, especially in modern human populations, lead to malocclusions (dis-integration). An animal experiment was performed to test this hypothesis, and the results indicate that masticatory effort (eating hard or soft foods) coordinates jaw and dental growth. Further testing the hypothesis, the effects of morphology on masticatory function were studied by coupling subject masticatory performance with occlusal scores. Multiple regressions of occlusion and tooth size explained a high proportion of masticatory performance variance (significantly more than tooth size alone), suggesting that occlusal integration does indeed affect masticatory function. Taken together, the results of this dissertation document the significant reductions in hominin masticatory forces and changes in cranio-dental growth and integration that may have resulted from the use of food processing techniques. / Human Evolutionary Biology

With the continuing trend towards miniaturization, micro milling plays an increasingly important role in fabrication of freeform and high-accuracy micro parts or components directly and cost-effectively. The technology is in kinematics scaled down from the conventional milling, however, existing knowledge and experiences are limited and comprehensive studies on the micro tooling performance are essential and much needed particularly for the process planning and optimization. The cutting performance of micro tools is largely dependent on the dynamic performance of machine tools, tooling characteristics, work material properties and process conditions, and the latter three aspects will be focused in the study. The state of the art of micro milling technology with respect to the tooling performance has been critically reviewed, together with modelling work for performance prediction as well as metrology and instrumentation for the performance characterization. A novel 3D finite element method taking into account the geometry of a micro tool, including the tool diameter, rake angle, relief angle, cutting edge radius and helix angle, has been proposed for modelling and simulation of the micro milling process. Validation through well-designed micro milling trials demonstrates that the approach is capable of characterizing the milling process effectively. With the support of FEM simulation developed, the tooling geometrical effects, including those from helix angle, rake angle and cutting edge radius with influences on cutting forces, tool stresses, tool temperatures, milling chip formation and temperatures have been comprehensively studied and compared for potential micro tool design and optimization purposes. In an effort to prolong the tool life and enhance the tooling efficiency, DLC and NCD coatings have been deposited on micro end mills by PE-CVD and HF-CVD processes respectively. Corresponding cutting performance of these coated tools have been assessed and compared with those of WC micro tools in both dry and wet cutting conditions so as for better understanding of the coating influence on micro tools. Furthermore, the cutting characteristics of the DLC coated and uncoated tools have been analysed through verified plane-strain simulations. The effects of coating friction coefficient, coating thickness and UCT have been determined and evaluated by design of simulation method. Mechanical, chemical and physical properties of a work material have a direct influence on its micro-machinability. Five most common engineering materials including Al 6061-T6, C101, AISI 1045, 304 and P20, have been experimentally investigated and their micro milling behaviours in terms of the cutting forces, tool wear, surface roughness, and micro-burr formation have been compared and characterized. Feed rate, cutting speed and axial depth of cut constitute the complete set of process variables and they have significant effects on the tooling performance. Fundamental understanding of their influences is essential for production engineers to determine optimum cutting parameters so as to achieve the maximum extension of the tool life. 3D FE-based simulations have been carried out to predict the process variable effects on the cutting forces, tool stresses, tool temperatures as well as micro milling chip formation and temperatures. Furthermore, experimental approach has been adopted for the surface roughness characterization. Suggestions on selecting practical cutting variables have been provided in light of the results obtained. Conclusions with respect to the holistic investigation on the tooling performance in micro milling have been drawn based on the research objectives achieved. Recommendations for future work have been pointed out particularly for further future research in the research area.

Este trabalho tem como objetivo investigar quais são os valores dos principais parâmetros que a literatura apresenta para o processo de forjamento a morno de precisão. Os parâmetros escolhidos são: curva de escoamento do SAE-1050M a frio e a quente, fator de atrito e o coeficiente de transferência de calor entre peça e ferramenta. Estipulou-se uma faixa de variação destes parâmetros, simulou o processo através do método dos elementos finitos com o uso do pacote MSC.Superform 2005 para os diferentes parâmetros e cruzou os resultados por meio do conceito de sensitividade. Os resultados cruzados são: força, trabalho, deformação e temperatura. Simulações são realizadas com variações dos parâmetros de entrada baseadas nos ensaios e levantamento bibliográficos. As respostas das simulações são adimensionalizadas com o uso do conceito de sensitividade, podendo assim, serem comparadas entre si. O fator de atrito e o coeficiente de transferência de calor entre peça e ferramenta não influenciam tanto na resposta como a curva de escoamento. / This work has as objective to investigate which values of key parameters are presented by the literature for the warm precision forging process. The chosen parameters are: hot and cold SAE-1050M flow stress curve, friction factor and heat transfer coefficient between workpiece and die. Stipulate a range of variation of these parameters, simulate the process through the finite elements method with the use of the package MSC.Superform 2005 with different parameters and cross the results with concept of sensitivity. The crossed results are: force, work, strain and temperature. Simulations are carried out with variations of the input parameters based on the bibliographical research and tests. The simulations output are nondimensionalised with the use of the sensitivity concept, thus being able, to be comparative between themselves. The friction factor and the heat transfer coefficient between workpiece and die do not influence as much as the flow stress curve.

Este trabalho tem como objetivo investigar quais são os valores dos principais parâmetros que a literatura apresenta para o processo de forjamento a morno de precisão. Os parâmetros escolhidos são: curva de escoamento do SAE-1050M a frio e a quente, fator de atrito e o coeficiente de transferência de calor entre peça e ferramenta. Estipulou-se uma faixa de variação destes parâmetros, simulou o processo através do método dos elementos finitos com o uso do pacote MSC.Superform 2005 para os diferentes parâmetros e cruzou os resultados por meio do conceito de sensitividade. Os resultados cruzados são: força, trabalho, deformação e temperatura. Simulações são realizadas com variações dos parâmetros de entrada baseadas nos ensaios e levantamento bibliográficos. As respostas das simulações são adimensionalizadas com o uso do conceito de sensitividade, podendo assim, serem comparadas entre si. O fator de atrito e o coeficiente de transferência de calor entre peça e ferramenta não influenciam tanto na resposta como a curva de escoamento. / This work has as objective to investigate which values of key parameters are presented by the literature for the warm precision forging process. The chosen parameters are: hot and cold SAE-1050M flow stress curve, friction factor and heat transfer coefficient between workpiece and die. Stipulate a range of variation of these parameters, simulate the process through the finite elements method with the use of the package MSC.Superform 2005 with different parameters and cross the results with concept of sensitivity. The crossed results are: force, work, strain and temperature. Simulations are carried out with variations of the input parameters based on the bibliographical research and tests. The simulations output are nondimensionalised with the use of the sensitivity concept, thus being able, to be comparative between themselves. The friction factor and the heat transfer coefficient between workpiece and die do not influence as much as the flow stress curve.