Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro / A restrição protéica neonatal promove alterações metabólicas, estruturais e morfológicas em diversos órgãos. O tipo de dieta pós-natal pode agravar esse quadro. Este trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar os efeitos da dieta com alta densidade energética (ADE) pós-natal sobre os parâmetros morfológicos hepáticos de ratos Wistar submetidos à restrição protéica neonatal. Fêmeas Wistar foram divididas em dois grupos nutricionais: normoprotéico (NP-19% proteínas) e com restrição protéica durante a gestação e primeira metade da lactação (LP-5% de proteínas). Ambas as dietas seguiram ecomendações da AIN-93 (Rhoster_). Ao desmame, os filhotes foram subdivididos em oito grupos, de acordo com o tipo de dieta pós-natal (SC - ração padrão ou HF dieta ADE): a) macho NP-SC; b) fêmea NP-SC; c) macho NP-HF; d) fêmea NP-HF; e) macho LPSC; f) fêmea LP-SC; g) macho LP-HF e h) fêmea LP-HF. A aferição da massa corporal e da pressão arterial foram feitas semanalmente. Aos 6 meses de idade, os animais sofreram eutanásia. O fígado foi retirado após perfusão e teve seu volume aferido pelo método de Scherle. Para fins estatísticos utilizou-se análise de variância e teste de comparações múltiplas de Neuman-Keuls (p<0,05). A dieta ADE foi eficaz ao induzir sobrepeso nos grupos NP-HF de ambos os sexos aos 77 dias (p<0,001). Aos 112 dias as fêmeas LP-HF apresentaram sobrepeso em relação às fêmeas LP (p<0,05) demonstrando que os fatores ambientais podem maximizar os efeitos da restrição protéica neonatal. Entretanto, em machos essa interação não foi observada. No que concerne às alterações hepáticas, a restrição protéica resultou em redução do número de hepatócitos em ambos os gêneros (p<0,01), com efeito adicional da dieta ADE apenas nos machos (p<0,01). Ademais, o insulto sofrido no período neonatal promoveu uma predisposição ao acúmulo de triglicerídeos hepáticos nos grupos RP (Vv = 15%), configurando um quadro de esteatose (p<0,01). A dieta ADE acentuou essa alteração, com os grupos RP-ADE alcançando níveis superiores a 33% de esteatose (p<0,001). Tanto a restrição protéica neonatal quanto a dieta ADE pós-desmame de forma isolada promoveram HAS leve aos 3 meses, redução do número de hepatócitos e esteatose grau 1 aos 6 meses de idade. Quando os dois estímulos foram aplicados simultaneamente, foi observada uma exacerbação do quadro hipertensivo, do déficit de hepatócitos e esteatose grau 2. Essas constatações ratificam a importância das condições intra-uterinas e da qualidade da dieta pós-natal na gênese de doenças crônicas. / Neonatal protein restriction has been associated with metabolic, structural and morphological adaptations in diverse organs. The type of postnatal diet can further exacerbate these outcomes. The present work aimed at evaluating the effects a postnatal hyperlipidic diet exerts on hepatic morphological parameters of rats subjected to perinatal protein restriction. Virgin female Wistar were divided into 2 groups: normal protein (NP) and low protein (LP). NP dams received standard diet for pregnant rats (AIN-93/Rhoster_- 19% protein) during the whole pregnancy and first half lactation, whereas LP dams had free access to na isocaloric diet lacking the recommended amount of protein (5% protein) for the same period. At weaning, offspring were assigned to one of the 8 nutritional groups according to the diet they will receive (SC standard chow or HF high fat): a) male NP-SC; b) female NP-SC; c) male NP-HF; d) female NP-HF; e) male LPSC; f) female LP-SC; g) male LP-HF e h) fêmea RP-ADE. Body mass and blood pressure were measured weekly until 6 months, when euthanasia occurred. Liver was carefully dissected and had its volume determined through Scherles method. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and post-hoc test of Bonferroni were used to test differences among the groups (p<0,05). The HF diet provoked overweight in NP-HF groups from both genders on day 77 (p<0,001). However, LP-HFC groups showed a delayed response and sexual dimorphism, as only females developed overweight on day 112 (p<0,05). As for hepatic alterations, protein restriction resulted in hepatocyte deficit in both genders (p<0.01), existing an additional shift from HF diet exclusively in males (p<0.01). Furthermore, higher steatosis rates were found in protein restricted animals (Vv = 15%, p<0.01), having the post-weaning HF diet an additional effect on this outcome in LP-HF (Vv > 33%, p<0.001). Fetal programming and HF diet as single stimulus caused mild hypertension at 3 months, an important reduction in hepatocyte number as well as stage 1 steatosis at 6 months. However, when both stimuli were applied simultaneously, hypertension and hepatocyte number deficit were worsened and grade 2 steatosis occurred. All of these serve to highlight the paramount importance of intrauterine conditions and postnatal diet quality when it comes to the pathogenesis of chronic diseases.

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro / A restrição protéica neonatal promove alterações metabólicas, estruturais e morfológicas em diversos órgãos. O tipo de dieta pós-natal pode agravar esse quadro. Este trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar os efeitos da dieta com alta densidade energética (ADE) pós-natal sobre os parâmetros morfológicos hepáticos de ratos Wistar submetidos à restrição protéica neonatal. Fêmeas Wistar foram divididas em dois grupos nutricionais: normoprotéico (NP-19% proteínas) e com restrição protéica durante a gestação e primeira metade da lactação (LP-5% de proteínas). Ambas as dietas seguiram ecomendações da AIN-93 (Rhoster_). Ao desmame, os filhotes foram subdivididos em oito grupos, de acordo com o tipo de dieta pós-natal (SC - ração padrão ou HF dieta ADE): a) macho NP-SC; b) fêmea NP-SC; c) macho NP-HF; d) fêmea NP-HF; e) macho LPSC; f) fêmea LP-SC; g) macho LP-HF e h) fêmea LP-HF. A aferição da massa corporal e da pressão arterial foram feitas semanalmente. Aos 6 meses de idade, os animais sofreram eutanásia. O fígado foi retirado após perfusão e teve seu volume aferido pelo método de Scherle. Para fins estatísticos utilizou-se análise de variância e teste de comparações múltiplas de Neuman-Keuls (p<0,05). A dieta ADE foi eficaz ao induzir sobrepeso nos grupos NP-HF de ambos os sexos aos 77 dias (p<0,001). Aos 112 dias as fêmeas LP-HF apresentaram sobrepeso em relação às fêmeas LP (p<0,05) demonstrando que os fatores ambientais podem maximizar os efeitos da restrição protéica neonatal. Entretanto, em machos essa interação não foi observada. No que concerne às alterações hepáticas, a restrição protéica resultou em redução do número de hepatócitos em ambos os gêneros (p<0,01), com efeito adicional da dieta ADE apenas nos machos (p<0,01). Ademais, o insulto sofrido no período neonatal promoveu uma predisposição ao acúmulo de triglicerídeos hepáticos nos grupos RP (Vv = 15%), configurando um quadro de esteatose (p<0,01). A dieta ADE acentuou essa alteração, com os grupos RP-ADE alcançando níveis superiores a 33% de esteatose (p<0,001). Tanto a restrição protéica neonatal quanto a dieta ADE pós-desmame de forma isolada promoveram HAS leve aos 3 meses, redução do número de hepatócitos e esteatose grau 1 aos 6 meses de idade. Quando os dois estímulos foram aplicados simultaneamente, foi observada uma exacerbação do quadro hipertensivo, do déficit de hepatócitos e esteatose grau 2. Essas constatações ratificam a importância das condições intra-uterinas e da qualidade da dieta pós-natal na gênese de doenças crônicas. / Neonatal protein restriction has been associated with metabolic, structural and morphological adaptations in diverse organs. The type of postnatal diet can further exacerbate these outcomes. The present work aimed at evaluating the effects a postnatal hyperlipidic diet exerts on hepatic morphological parameters of rats subjected to perinatal protein restriction. Virgin female Wistar were divided into 2 groups: normal protein (NP) and low protein (LP). NP dams received standard diet for pregnant rats (AIN-93/Rhoster_- 19% protein) during the whole pregnancy and first half lactation, whereas LP dams had free access to na isocaloric diet lacking the recommended amount of protein (5% protein) for the same period. At weaning, offspring were assigned to one of the 8 nutritional groups according to the diet they will receive (SC standard chow or HF high fat): a) male NP-SC; b) female NP-SC; c) male NP-HF; d) female NP-HF; e) male LPSC; f) female LP-SC; g) male LP-HF e h) fêmea RP-ADE. Body mass and blood pressure were measured weekly until 6 months, when euthanasia occurred. Liver was carefully dissected and had its volume determined through Scherles method. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and post-hoc test of Bonferroni were used to test differences among the groups (p<0,05). The HF diet provoked overweight in NP-HF groups from both genders on day 77 (p<0,001). However, LP-HFC groups showed a delayed response and sexual dimorphism, as only females developed overweight on day 112 (p<0,05). As for hepatic alterations, protein restriction resulted in hepatocyte deficit in both genders (p<0.01), existing an additional shift from HF diet exclusively in males (p<0.01). Furthermore, higher steatosis rates were found in protein restricted animals (Vv = 15%, p<0.01), having the post-weaning HF diet an additional effect on this outcome in LP-HF (Vv > 33%, p<0.001). Fetal programming and HF diet as single stimulus caused mild hypertension at 3 months, an important reduction in hepatocyte number as well as stage 1 steatosis at 6 months. However, when both stimuli were applied simultaneously, hypertension and hepatocyte number deficit were worsened and grade 2 steatosis occurred. All of these serve to highlight the paramount importance of intrauterine conditions and postnatal diet quality when it comes to the pathogenesis of chronic diseases.

Une des caractéristiques les plus connues de la programmation métabolique est qu’un événement commun physiopathologique à l'âge adulte obtenu indépendamment du stress nutritionnel au début de la vie. Cela a conduit à penser que les altérations métaboliques dûes au stress nutritionnel précoce pouvaient résulter de la programmation seulement d’un petit nombre de gènes qui agissent comme gardiens d'un réseau de gènes ou d'une voie de signalisation. Ici nous avons l’intention de tester cette hypothèse par l'analyse combinée du transcriptome et méthylome avec des échantillons de foie des rats nés de mères nourries avec une alimentation restreinte en protéines (MPR) ou carencée en donneur de méthyles (MDD) pendant la gestation et la lactation et comparer entre les 2 modèls. Au moment du sevrage, la progéniture MDD a été sacrifiée, tandis que la progéniture du groupe MPR a reçu une nourriture standard jusqu'à l'âge de 6 mois. Les rats à jours 21 nés de mères nourries avec un régime MDD ont 3.269 gènes surexprimé (P <0,0009) et 2.841 gènes sous-exprimés (P <0,0004) par rapport aux témoins. Les modifications de méthylation de l'ADN ont été trouvées dans les régions promotrices de 1.032 gènes. Les analyses fonctionnelles ont révélé que ces gènes sont principalement impliqués dans le métabolisme des lipides et du glucose, du système nerveux, la coagulation, le stress du réticulum endoplasmique et la fonction mitochondriale. Les master genes présentant des changements à la fois dans l'expression et la méthylation d'ADN sont limités à 266 gènes et ils sont principalement impliqués dans le système rénine-angiotensine, le métabolisme de la mitochondrie et de l'homéostasie phospholipide. La plupart de ces master genes participent à la Non Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD). La restriction protéique maternelle (MPR) a entraîné une augmentation de la masse grasse abnominale, de l'hypertriglycéridémie, de l'hypercholestérolémie et un taux élevé d’acides gras par rapport aux témoins. 3.020 gènes sont surexprimés (P<0,0003) et 3.601 sous-exprimés (P<0,002) au niveau du transcriptome et 3.968 gènes modifiés au niveau du méthylome par rapport aux témoins. L'analyse fonctionnelle a indiqué que les gènes surexprimés sont principalement impliqués dans les voies métaboliques et les gènes sous-exprimés et différemment méthylés sont principalement impliqués dans des processus du développement. 998 master genes ont été trouvés, et léanalyse fonctionnelle de ces gènes a indiqué un effet significatif sur le développement des tissus, la régulation de la transcription et le métabolisme, et beaucoup d'entre eux sont associés à des maladies chroniques comme l'hypertension, l'obésité centrale et le diabète. L'expression des gènes et la méthylation de l'ADN du génome obtenus en utilisant ces modèles ont été comparés aux données de méthylome et de transcriptome précédemment obtenus à partir de foie des rats restreints en protéines et sacrifiés à la naissance. Cette analyse a révélé un ensemble commun de 46 gènes qui sont sur-exprimés et 42 gènes sous-exprimés dans les trois modèles de programmation métabolique par rapport aux animaux témoins. La plupart des gènes surexprimés sont impliqués dans la régulation de la fonction mitochondriale alors que les gènes sous-exprimés sont principalement impliquées dans la régulation de la prolifération cellulaire et l'expression des gènes. Nous avons identifié également un ensemble de 122 gènes dont les niveaux de méthylation ont été modifiés à la fois par une carence en donneurs de méthyle et une restriction protéique. Ces observations soutiennent l’hypothèse qu’un petit nombre de gènes essentiels sont à la base de la programmation de troubles métaboliques, indépendamment du stress nutritionnel / One of the most striking features of metabolic programming is that a common physiopathological output at adulthood is obtained irrespective to the nutritional insult during early life. This has suggested that the metabolic alterations due to early nutritional stress might result from the programming of only a small number of genes which act as gatekeepers of a fundamental gene network or signalling pathway. Here we aimed to test this hypothesis through the combined analysis of the transcriptome and methylome in rat liver samples derived from animals born to dams fed either a protein-restricted diet (MPR) or a methyl donor deficient (MDD) diet through gestation and lactation. At weaning, the offspring born to MDD dams were sacrificed whereas the pups from the MPR group were fed standard chow until the age of 6 months. 21-day-old rats born to mothers fed a MDD diet during gestation and lactation have 3,269 over-expressed (P<0.0009) and 2,841 under-expressed (P<0.0004) genes compared to controls. Modifications of DNA methylation were found in the promoter regions of 1,032 genes. Functional analyses revealed that these genes are mainly involved in glucose and lipid metabolism, nervous system, coagulation, endoplasmic reticulum stress and mitochondrial function. Master genes exhibiting changes in both gene expression and DNA methylation are limited to 266 genes and are mainly involved in the renin-angiotensin system, mitochondrion metabolism and phospholipid homeostasis. Most of these master genes participate in Non Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD). Maternal protein restriction (MPR) resulted in increased fat mass, hypertriglyceridemia, hypercholesterolemia and high fatty acids compared to control. 3,020 genes were up-regulated (p < 0.0003) and 3,601 (p ? 0.002) down-regulated by MPR compared to controls. Modifications of DNA methylation was found in 3,968 genes. The functional analysis indicated that the overexpressed genes were mainly involved in metabolic pathways and the under-expressed and differentially methylated genes were mainly involved in physiological process. 998 master genes were found, functional analysis of these genes indicated a significant effect on tissue development, regulation of transcription and metabolism, and many of them are associated with chronic diseases such as hypertension, central obesity and diabetes. The genome-wide expression and DNA metylation results obtained using these models, were compared to previous methylome and transcriptome data obtained using liver from MPR pups sacrificed at birth. This analysis revealed a common set of 46 genes that were up regulated and 42 genes down regulated in the three models of metabolic programming compared to control animals. Most of the up regulated genes are involved in the regulation of mitochondrial function whereas the down-regulated genes are mainly involved in the regulation of cell proliferation and gene expression. We identified also a set of 122 genes whose methylation levels were changed both by methyl donor deficiency and protein-restriction. These observations sustain the hypothesis that a small set of core genes underlies the programming of metabolic disorders irrespective of the nutritional insult

Die Entwicklung eines Embryos und Fetus beeinflusst die Anfälligkeit für kardiovaskuläre Erkrankungen im weiteren Verlauf des Lebens entscheidend. Zugrundeliegende Mechanismen sind jedoch weitestgehend unbekannt. Unter Zuhilfenahme eines neuen Mausmodells für intrauterine kardiale Wachstumsretardierung zielt die vorliegende Dissertation auf die Identifikation adaptiver Wachstumsmechanismen ab, welche die Anpassung der Organgröße und die Aufrechterhaltung einer normalen Herzfunktion ermöglichen. Vielzählige Gene des Aminosäure (AS)-Metabolismus und der Proteinhomeostase zeigten eine vermehrte Expression in neugeborenen Mausherzen nach gestörter Embryonalentwicklung. Es wurde angenommen, dass sowohl die AS-Verfügbarkeit als auch die Aktivität der mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) Signalkaskade entscheidend für eine normale Herzentwicklung und postnatales kompensatorisches Wachstum sind. Der mTOR Komplex 1 (mTORC1) wurde in prä- und perinatalen Mäusen mittels Rapamycin-Behandlung trächtiger Weibchen inhibiert. Die Auswirkungen einer prä- und postnatalen AS-Restriktion wurden anhand einer Niedrigproteindiät untersucht. Rapamycin-behandelte Neugeborene zeichneten sich durch vermindertes Gesamtwachstum sowie Entwicklungsverzögerung aus. Dabei war die kardiale Entwicklung besonders betroffen. Kardiale Proliferationsraten waren nicht verändert, die verminderte Herzgröße wurde jedoch auf eine verringerte Kardiomyozytengröße sowie eine erhöhte Apoptoserate zurückgeführt. Die intrauterine AS-Restriktion wurde überraschend gut von den Mausherzen toleriert. Zusammenfassend konnte gezeigt werden, dass die mTOR Signalkaskade essentiell für eine normale Herzentwicklung sowie kompensatorisches kardiales Wachstum ist. Darüber hinaus stellt die pränatale Rapamycin-Behandlung möglicherweise ein neues Modell der intrauterinen Wachstumsretardierung dar, welches Untersuchungen von Programmierungs-Mechanismen vor allem während der fötalen und perinatalen Herzentwicklung ermöglicht. / Intrauterine development influences the susceptibility to cardiovascular disease in adulthood, although the underlying molecular mechanisms are vastly unknown. Utilizing a new mouse model of impaired heart development, this thesis aims at identifying pre- and postnatal adaptive growth mechanisms to restore organ size and allow normal cardiac function. Unbiased functional annotation of genes differentially expressed in neonatal hearts after impaired intrauterine development revealed numerous gene clusters involved in amino acid (AA) metabolism and protein homeostasis. It was hypothesized that both AA availability and mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway activation are crucial for normal heart development and compensatory cardiac growth. mTOR complex 1 (mTORC1) was inhibited in fetal and neonatal mice by rapamycin treatment of pregnant dams. The effects of pre- and postnatal AA restriction were studied by feeding dams a low protein diet (LPD) throughout pregnancy and keeping the offspring on LPD postnatally. Rapamycin treated neonates were characterized by overall growth restriction and developmental delay, where cardiac development was especially affected (reduction of heart size, weight and heart weight to body weight ratio, severe thinning and noncompaction of the ventricular myocardium as well as immature myocardial morphology). While proliferation rates were unaffected, the reduced neonatal heart size was attributed to decreased cardiomyocyte size and increased apoptosis. Strikingly, the murine heart appeared to be surprisingly resistant to intrauterine AA restriction. In conclusion, the data revealed mTOR being essential for normal as well as compensatory cardiac development and growth. Moreover, prenatal rapamycin treatment might represent a new model of intrauterine growth restriction, which potentially allows the investigation of developmental programming mechanisms within the heart particularly in the fetal and neonatal phase of development.