Allostatic load, or the “wear and tear” on the body due to stress, is thought to have a negative impact on length of pregnancy and contribute to health disparities in preterm birth. However, the magnitude of the effect on birth outcomes is unknown, in part due to questions of timing of measurement of allostatic load during pregnancy. This study used linear regression analysis of data from 156 pregnant women to test whether allostatic load is a predictor of length of gestation in the study sample, finding that third trimester allostatic load predicted length of gestation among women with full-term births. The study also compared allostatic load in each trimester to determine an optimal time of measurement for prediction of preterm birth. Findings were inconclusive because regardless of trimester of measurement, allostatic load was not a significant predictor of gestational length in the sample. Finally, the study compared allostatic load with scores on the Everyday Stressors Index, a psychosocial measure, to understand the relative benefits of allostatic load measurement during pregnancy. Neither was found to be a statistically significant predictor of preterm birth, so direct comparisons were not possible. Implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.

This study used a parenting stress and coping model to identify predictors of symptomatology for 13 8 mothers of medically compromised children. This model proposed that: child characteristics (severity of the chronic illness and child related parenting stressors); parent characteristics (self-esteem, sense of competence, and parents' perceived stress/distress); and environmental characteristics (social support, general life stressor events, and demographic variables) contribute to psychological symptomatology for these mothers. Multiple regression analysis found a relationship between general life stressor events, severity of the children's chronic conditions, lower satisfaction with social support, lower self-esteem, and younger mothers' ages and greater symptomatology. Trends toward significance were found for more parenting stress and lower parenting sense of competence predicting greater symptomatology. Predicted relationships between family socioeconomic status and parenting daily hassles and symptomatology were not supported.

Pesticides, poor nutrition, parasites and diseases work synergistically to contribute to the decline of the honey bee. Heritable sub-lethal behavior/immune effects may also contribute to the decline. Maternal stress is a common source of heritable immune/behavior deficits in many species. A stressed honey bee queen has the potential to pass such deficits on to worker bees. Using a repeated measures design, this study will determine whether the health of worker bee is reduced by a cold stress on the queen by analyzing egg hatch rate and protein content, emergence rate, and adult aggression and immune function for offspring laid before and after the stressor. Results show that queen stress influences egg hatching rate and emergence rate but does not impact egg protein content, adult offspring immune function or aggressive behavior.

Maternal stress during the perinatal period has been linked to attention and behavioral problems and increased adrenocortical activity in children. Underlying this relationship is thought to be exposure to excessive glucocorticoids during development. The aim of this set of studies was to determine the effects of chronic maternal stress (CMS) during the perinatal period on behaviour and endocrine function in male and female guinea pig offspring at the juvenile and adult life stage. Environmental enrichment was investigated as a potential therapeutic tool to reverse changes induced by CMS. Pregnant guinea pigs were exposed to a sequence of stressors every other day over the second half of gestation until weaning on postnatal day 25. Offspring were tested for ambulatory activity, attention, cognitive function, sex-steroid levels and adrenocortical function. One cohort of animals were housed in an enriched environment, the remaining offspring were housed in standard conditions. A separate cohort was administered amphetamine (1 mg/kg) prior to behavioural testing to determine influence of CMS on dopaminergic function. Juvenile male and female offspring of mothers exposed to stress exhibited increased basal and decreased stress-induced salivary cortisol, and male offspring displayed reduced activity and a phase shift in their circadian rhythm of activity. Adult male offspring of CMS mothers exhibited increased activity in a novel environment and decreased activity in a familiar environment. Female adult offspring of CMS mothers exhibited reduced attention and increased activity in a novel environment. Enrichment acted independently of CMS, increasing plasma testosterone and attention in adult male offspring and reducing the adrenocortical response to stress and decreasing attention and activity in female offspring. Amphetamine decreased activity in a novel environment and increased activity in a familiar environment in both sexes, regardless of age or maternal treatment. Amphetamine improved attention in juvenile and adult males. The current studies demonstrated a strong effect of CMS on behaviour in juvenile and adult offspring. Enrichment was not effective for attenuating the effects of CMS. These studies clearly demonstrate behavioural changes as a result of CMS emerge over the lifetime of the offspring and have begun to uncover the underlying mechanisms of programming.

Maternal stress during the perinatal period has been linked to attention and behavioral problems and increased adrenocortical activity in children. Underlying this relationship is thought to be exposure to excessive glucocorticoids during development. The aim of this set of studies was to determine the effects of chronic maternal stress (CMS) during the perinatal period on behaviour and endocrine function in male and female guinea pig offspring at the juvenile and adult life stage. Environmental enrichment was investigated as a potential therapeutic tool to reverse changes induced by CMS. Pregnant guinea pigs were exposed to a sequence of stressors every other day over the second half of gestation until weaning on postnatal day 25. Offspring were tested for ambulatory activity, attention, cognitive function, sex-steroid levels and adrenocortical function. One cohort of animals were housed in an enriched environment, the remaining offspring were housed in standard conditions. A separate cohort was administered amphetamine (1 mg/kg) prior to behavioural testing to determine influence of CMS on dopaminergic function. Juvenile male and female offspring of mothers exposed to stress exhibited increased basal and decreased stress-induced salivary cortisol, and male offspring displayed reduced activity and a phase shift in their circadian rhythm of activity. Adult male offspring of CMS mothers exhibited increased activity in a novel environment and decreased activity in a familiar environment. Female adult offspring of CMS mothers exhibited reduced attention and increased activity in a novel environment. Enrichment acted independently of CMS, increasing plasma testosterone and attention in adult male offspring and reducing the adrenocortical response to stress and decreasing attention and activity in female offspring. Amphetamine decreased activity in a novel environment and increased activity in a familiar environment in both sexes, regardless of age or maternal treatment. Amphetamine improved attention in juvenile and adult males. The current studies demonstrated a strong effect of CMS on behaviour in juvenile and adult offspring. Enrichment was not effective for attenuating the effects of CMS. These studies clearly demonstrate behavioural changes as a result of CMS emerge over the lifetime of the offspring and have begun to uncover the underlying mechanisms of programming.

Ionizing radiation exposure during pregnancy raises concerns of potentially harmful effects for both the mother and the unborn child. Fetal programming involves permanent changes in offspring phenotype due to stress experienced in-utero. This phenomenon has been well characterized in cardiometabolic disorders such as hypertension. The effects of prenatal ionizing radiation exposure on offspring cardiovascular endpoints following birth were studied in a mouse model. Pregnant wildtype C57Bl/6J mice were irradiated on day 15 of pregnancy with whole-body 137Cs gamma radiation at nominal doses of 5, 10, 50, 100, 300 or 1000 mGy. Post-natal measurements of offspring weight and blood pressure were completed. In female pups, blood pressure was significantly increased at 300 mGy and heart rate significantly decreased at 1000 mGy. Female pups were growth restricted over the study period at 50, 100 and 1000 mGy. Growth restriction in male pups was only observed at the highest dose of 1000 mGy. Unintended effects on the study measures caused by transportation of pregnant mothers to the irradiation facility were most evident in male offspring with increased blood pressure and heart rate and decreased body size. These unintended effects caused by transportation may have been attenuated with the 10 mGy in-utero exposure. Overall, these results suggest that prenatal radiation effects in mice are both dose- and gender-dependent, with even fairly low doses demonstrating (potentially adaptive) effects. There is a need for further study to better characterize the mechanism of this response. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc)

Significant relationships have been identified between elements of early parent-infant interactions and later skills or qualities in the child. Generally speaking, sensitive and responsive interactions between a mother and infant during the first year of life tend to be linked with improved child developmental outcomes (Barnard, 1996; Wyly, 1997). Research has examined the influence of infant and family risk factors on parent-infant interaction. Family risk factors including maternal depression can reduce a mother's sensitivity and responsiveness to her infant. Evidence is mounting that mothers of preterm infants experience higher rates of depression than mothers of fullterm infants (e.g. Miles et al., 1999). Although all infants may be vulnerable to the effects of maternal depression, the premature infant is at greater risk due to his/her decreased responsiveness and increased need for appropriate stimulation (Field, 1995). The purpose of this study was to examine maternal reports of depressive symptomatology and associated variables at two time points following a very preterm birth: at one-month postpartum (Phase 1); and 3 months after infant hospital discharge (Phase 2). Observational data were collected at Phase 2 to explore whether maternal depressive symptoms and associated factors influenced maternal-infant interaction. A two-phase prospective follow-up design involved surveying mothers of very premature infants (&It; 32weeks) who were admitted to a neonatal intensive care unit (NICU). Multiple measurements were collected at Phase 1 and Phase 2. Mother-infant observational data were collected at Phase 2. The subject population comprised all eligible mothers of very premature infants who were admitted to a 60 bed tertiary referral NICU of a major metropolitan hospital (n=62). Mothers completed a survey at Phase 1 and Phase 2. The questionnaire contained a number of validated instruments measuring depression, stress, social support and coping. Maternal and infant demographic data were collated from the hospital records. Observational data were collected and coded using the Nursing Child Assessment Feeding Scale (Barnard et al., 1989). Results indicated that 40% of women reported clinically significant depressive symptomatology at one month postpartum. High maternal stress and low maternal education and support from nursing staff were major factors explaining depression scores. At Phase 2, 17% of women continued to report clinically significant depressive symptomatology. Depression at Phase 1 and maternal stress at Phase 2 were important factors explaining Phase 2 depression scores. An exploratory analysis of the relationship between mother-infant interaction and Phase 1 and Phase 2 variables revealed that the mothers' coping strategies, both in hospital and at home, were important factors in explaining mother-infant interaction. The results support previous findings that many women suffer stress and depressive symptoms after very premature birth. The results indicate that maternal depression, at one month postnatally, can be predictive of maternal depression at three months after infant hospital discharge and that very premature infants are less responsive interactive partners. These findings highlight possible parenting difficulties particularly during the first year. This study has contributed to family centered research by highlighting the importance of early postnatal experiences to the longer-term psychological health of mothers and to the mother-infant relationship. Screening mothers of very premature infants for postpartum depression will enable early identification of symptoms and appropriate referral for treatment.

Resumo: A hospitalização infantil para realização de cirurgia envolve uma sobrecarga emocional tanto para as crianças quanto para sua família. Sabendo que adultos e crianças são atingidos de modo semelhante pelo stress, este estudo avaliou o nível de stress de acompanhantes e crianças em situação pré-cirúrgica e as estratégias de enfrentamento (coping) das crianças nesta situação. Participaram 63 crianças, com idade entre 7 e 12 anos, hospitalizadas para cirurgias eletivas, e seus acompanhantes. Para verificar as variáveis sociodemográficas e de hospitalização das crianças, um Questionário de Levantamento de Informações, elaborado para este estudo, foi aplicado nos acompanhantes. Para avaliar a presença de stress nas crianças, foi aplicada a Escola de Stress Infantil (ESI) e, nos acompanhantes, o Inventário de Sintomas de Stress para adultos de Lipp (ISSL). Aplicou-se o Instrumento de Avaliação das Estratégias de Enfrentamento da Hospitalização (AEH) para identificar as estratégias de enfrentamento utilizadas pelas crianças para lidar com a hospitalização. Observou-se que cerca de 12,7% das crianças apresentaram stress e 23,8% possibilidade de stress, especialmente para sintomas psicológicos (33%), relacionados às variáveis: idade (sete a oito anos), sexo feminino, não ter experiência anterior com cirurgia e receber pouca informação acerca do período perioperatório. As crianças informadas pelo médico e com informação sobre o procedimento cirúrgico, apresentaram menor nível de stress. A maioria dos acompanhantes (76%) foram diagnosticados como estressados, com prevalência da fase de resistência e sintomas psicológicos principalmente as do sexo feminino. As crianças pontuaram mais comportamentos facilitadores da hospitalização como: tomar medicação, assistir TV e conversar. Meninas, crianças com idade igual ou superior a 11 anos e crianças ... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: Children's hospitalization for surgery may involve an emotional burden for both, the child and for his family. Knowing that adults and children alike are affected by stress, this study evaluated the stress level of caregivers and children in pre-surgical situation and the coping strategies of children in this situation. Participated in this study 63 children aged between seven and 12 years hospitalized for elective sugery and their carers. To determine the sociodemographic variables and hospitalizationn of children, a questionnaire survey of information prepared for this study was applied in companions. To evaluate the the presence of stress in children, was applied the Escala de Stress Infantil (ESI) and, in accompanying the Inventário de Sintomas de Stress para adultos de Lipp (ISSL). To identify the coping strategies used bu children to cope with hospitalization was applied the Instrumento de Avaliação das Estratégias de Enfrentamento da Hospitalização (AEH). It was observed that approximately 12.7% of children showed stress and 23.8% possibility of stress, especially for psychological psychological symptoms (33%), related to the variables age (seven to eight years), female, have no previous experience with surgery and receive little information about the perioperative period. The children reported by the physician and the surgical procedure had a lower level of stress. The most caregivers (76%) were diagnosed as stressed, with a prevalecence of resistance phase and psychological symptons. The fact that a woman companion and chief caregiver, in addition to being a companion of young children with no previous surgical experience and female was related with higher stress. The children scored more facilitative behaviors of hospitalization as taking medication, watching TV and chatting. Girls, children aged less than 11 years and children ... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Orientador: Olga Maria Piazentin Rolim Rodrigues / Coorientador: Gimol Benzaquen Perosa / Banca: Sônia Regina Fiorim Enumo / Banca: Carmen Maria Bueno Neme / Mestre

In fish, maternal stress prior to spawn has been reported to have effects on offspring phenotype. Cortisol, the main glucocorticoid (GC) stress hormone, has been proposed as a potential mediator of such effects because of its organizational role in early teleost development. The present thesis tested whether maternal social stress or treatment with cortisol (as a proxy for maternal stress) prior to spawn affects the cortisol response to stress and anxiety-related behaviours in offspring. In zebrafish (Danio rerio), offspring of dominant females exhibited greater boldness at 6 days post-fertilization (DPF). Interestingly, offspring of females that engaged in social interactions, regardless of the resulting social status of the two females, exhibited greater survival at 1 DPF, a greater fear-related decrease in activity in response to bright light at 6 DPF, and decreased baseline whole-body cortisol content at 0 and 30 DPF. A field experiment with wild largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) revealed that maternal cortisol treatment prior to spawn also affected offspring phenotype; offspring of cortisol-treated females had higher masses right after hatch, had greater fear responses, were less bold and less anxious, and exhibited an attenuated cortisol response to an acute stressor. Together, the results of the present thesis suggest that effects of maternal stress prior to spawn on offspring survival, growth, responses to stress, and anxiety-related behaviours are mediated, at least in part, by elevated maternal cortisol but not likely via increased deposition of maternal cortisol into eggs. The effects of maternal stress and cortisol treatment on offspring reported in the present thesis also suggest that maternal stress may prime offspring with adaptive traits to better survive in a stressful environment.

The effects of maternal stress on child behavior, especially externalizing problems such as aggression, defiance, and lack of self-control, are well-established within psychological literature. Few studies, however, have examined the effects of maternal stress on child internalizing problems, such as loneliness, withdrawal, and symptoms of anxiety and depression. Moreover, there is much research within developmental psychology to support the notion that parent-child co-regulation, sometimes called dyadic synchrony, can predict child behavioral outcomes. Currently, researchers lack an understanding of how this process can interact with maternal stress to predict child internalizing symptoms. The following thesis details a multi-method assessment which is designed to examine the mediating effect of co-regulation on the relationship between maternal stress and child internalizing symptoms. In this research project, mothers and their three-year-old children complete questionnaires and a challenging dyadic task to assess their current stress, internalizing symptoms, and co-regulation strategies. Co-regulation scores are assigned through a macro coding scheme developed by a behavioral observation coding team. Due to ongoing data collection, data from a comparable project were collected to test this hypothesis using similar self-report measures. This study may have significant implications for the effects of everyday parent-child interactions on future child health outcomes.