To develop reference standards for cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) from directly measured maximum oxygen consumption using the Ball State University Adult Physical Fitness Program (APFP) cohort. The APFP cohort is an open cohort of self-referred participants since 1971. From 3,212 individual participants, 2,642 male and 1,741 female (18-79 years) test files remained after exclusion criteria was met. Gender-specific age, physical activity (PA), body mass index (BMI), and smoking status CRF reference standards were developed. Men had greater mean CRF (35%) than women and consistently had greater mean CRF according to age, PA, BMI, and smoking status (p<.05). CRF was approximately 10% lower across each decade of age, and was greater with increasing PA compared to the sedentary group. Greater classes of BMI had lower CRF, and CRF was 5% greater in non-smokers compared to current smokers. A pooled CRF registry is recommended for a larger and more diverse cohort. / School of Physical Education, Sport, and Exercise Science

The Borg 6–20 rating of perceived exertion (RPE) scale is a common measure reported during exercise testing and training, and is usually taken as a response measurement to provide a subjective assessment of exercise intensity. A lesser used application of the scale is for regulating exercise intensity, referred to as its ‘production mode’. Recent research on this topic initiated by Eston et al. (2005) has led to a novel application of this procedure as a means of predicting an individual’s maximal oxygen uptake ( O2max) via a perceptually-regulated exercise test (PRET). The PRET could play a significant role in guiding exercise prescription and monitoring cardiorespiratory fitness levels in situations where the normal heart rate response is affected. The aim of this thesis is to develop further and test the integrity of the PRET technique. Firstly, a review of the evidence on the validity and reliability of the Borg RPE scale when used to regulate exercise intensity in healthy and unhealthy adults is presented, as to-date, no scholarly publication has synthesised the body of knowledge on this specific application of the scale. Subsequently, four studies were completed to investigate the effects of different methodological variations on the predictive capabilities of the PRET, including an examination (for the first time) of its utility among heart failure patients (Study 4). Study 1 re-visited the validity and reliability of the PRET technique utilising a modified protocol of differing durations (2 and 4 min bouts), with revised instructions and placing the graded exercise test (GXT) as the final trial during cycle ergometry. Superior results were observed to those reported in previous investigations (Eston et al., 2008; Faulkner et al. 2007; Eston et al., 2006) during the 3 min trial, further reinforcing the validity and reliability of this technique. Accordingly, Study 2 was the first to investigate the reliability and validity of a treadmill PRET protocol with a ceiling intensity of RPE 15, rather than RPE 17, and observed that a safer modified PRET (with practice) provides acceptably valid and reliable predictions of O2max in healthy adults. In addition, Study 3 extended the research thus far by investigating the PRET protocol during cycle exercise, once again with a ceiling intensity of RPE 15, and demonstrated that (with practice) a cycle-based PRET can yield reliable and valid predictions of O2max that compare favourably to previous investigations. Finally, given that the research employing a PRET has unanimously alluded to its likely value in clinical populations among whom heart rate as a physiological response to exercise is affected (e.g. via medication) and precluded as a means predicting O2max, Study 4 investigated the utility of a PRET in a beta-blocked population of heart failure patients. In the event, it was observed that a PRET (up to RPE 15) was too strenuous and needs to be capped at an intensity of RPE 13 in this population. In addition a continuous protocol seemed unsuitable due to its length and it was recommended that a discontinuous PRET protocol be investigated. Future research needs to investigate the utilisation of the PRET (i) in different exercise modes; (ii) determine the optimum number of practice trials required; (iii) whether a discontinuous or continuous protocol is more appropariate; (iv) whether the extrapolation should be made to RPE 19 or 20 and; (v) whether the PRET can be employed succesfully in other clinical populations.

Access to abstract permanently restricted to Ball State community only. / Access to thesis permanently restricted to Ball State community only. / School of Physical Education, Sport, and Exercise Science

Orientador: Ellen Cristini de Freitas / Banca: Marcelo Papoti / Banca: Julio Sérgio Marchini / Resumo: A taurina é um aminoácido não essencial que atua principalmente no músculo esquelético evitando lesões musculares e auxiliando no tônus muscular. Visto a importância de um aporte nutricional adequado considerando calorias, carboidratos e proteínas, a fim de maximizar a recuperação após o treino e minimizar o risco de lesões musculares, a utilização de taurina seria uma alternativa para prevenir a inflamação e danos musculares, favorecer o processo de síntese proteica e reparo muscular e consequentemente melhorar a qualidade do treino sequencial dos triatletas. OBJETIVO: Analisar os efeitos de 8 semanas de suplementação de taurina e achocolatado sobre os marcadores de lesão muscular, resposta inflamatória e a capacidade aeróbia em triatletas. MÉTODOS: Foi realizado um estudo duplo cego, crossover, randomizado o qual contou com a participação de 9 triatletas da categoria de longa distância, do sexo masculino, com idade entre 25 a 35 anos. Foi realizada a suplementação de 3 gramas de taurina (TAU) ou placebo (PLA) associado a 400 ml de achocolatado de baixo de teor de gordura, durante o período de 8 semanas. Foram coletadas amostras de sangue antes (Pré) e após (Pós) cada período de suplementação para quantificação de marcadores de lesão muscular como lactato desidrogenase (LDH) e creatina quinase (CK), e também de marcadores inflamatórios como fatores de necrose tumoral-alfa (TNF-alfa) e interleucina-6 (IL-6). O desempenho físico dos triatletas foi avaliado por teste de exaustão em esteira. RESULTADOS: Foi constatado um aumento significativo nas concentrações de CK após a suplementação taurina (p=0,01). Entretanto as concentrações de LDH não apresentaram diferença significativa após as suplementações realizadas (TAU 16 Pré; 270,13±141,3 U.L-1 e... / Abstract: Taurine is an essential amino acid that acts primarily in skeletal muscle preventing muscle damage and improving muscle tone. Given the importance of an adequate nutritional supply considering calories, carbohydrates and proteins in order to maximize recovery after training and to minimize the risk of muscle damage, the use of taurine would be an alternative to prevent the inflammation and muscle damage, favor the process of protein synthesis and muscle repair and consequently improve the quality of triathlon training. In order to verify the effects of 8 weeks of taurine and chocolate milk supplementation, markers of muscle damage and inflammatory response, and aerobic capacity were quantified in triathletes. METHODS: A double-blind, crossover, randomized study was conducted with 9 male long distance triathletes, aged 25-35 years. Supplementation of 3 g of taurine was performed (TAU) or placebo (PLA) associated with 400 ml low fat chocolate milk during an 8-week period. Blood samples were collected before (Pre) and after (Post) each supplementation period for quantification of markers of muscle damage: Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), creatine kinase (CK), inflammatory markers: tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6), the physical performance of triathletes was evaluated by treadmill test until exhaustion. RESULTS: It was observed a significant increase in CK levels after TAU supplementation (p = 0.01). However, LDH concentrations did not differ significantly after the supplementations performed (TAU Pre; 270.13 ± 141.3 UL-1 and Post 350 ± 186 UL-1 ); (PLA Pre 196.07 ± 78.1 UL-1 and Post 230.2 ± 98.5 UL-1 ), and there were no changes in physical performance parameters; Anaerobic Threshold (TAU Pré 11,05±0,7 km/h e Pós 11,12±0,94 km/h); (PLA Pré 11,1±0,8 km/h e Pós 18 11,05±1,2), ... / Mestre

Access to abstract is permanently restricted to Ball State communtiy only. / Access to thesis permanently restricted to Ball State community only / School of Physical Education, Sport, and Exercise Science

Introduction: Acute ketone monoester (KE) supplementation affects exercise responses but there are equivocal data regarding the effects on exercise efficiency. We examined the effect of ketone monoester ingestion on exercise efficiency during cycling and probed further the influence of supplement dose and exercise intensity. This study was registered prior to data collection at ClinicalTrials.org (NCT05665855). Methods: Twenty-eight trained adults were recruited [16 males, 12 females; peak oxygen uptake (V̇O2peak): 59±11 ml·kg-1·min-1]. Participants completed three experimental trials in a randomized, crossover, and double-blinded manner, each separated by ~1 week. Participants ingested either a 0.3 (KE-LO) or 0.6 g/kg (KE-HI) body mass dose of KE or a flavour-matched placebo (PLAC) ~30 min prior to exercise. The incremental cycling protocol involved a 3-minute warm-up, three 5-minute stages at 75%, 100%, and 125% of individual ventilatory threshold, and a ramp increase to volitional exhaustion. Expired gases and heart rate were measured continually during exercise. Results: Venous blood [ß-hydroxybutyrate], the major circulating ketone body, was higher in both KE conditions compared to PLAC and also different between conditions (3.0±1.1 and 2.3±0.6 vs 0.2±0.1 mM; all p<0.05). There were no differences in submaximal exercise V̇O2, exercise economy, gross efficiency, or delta efficiency between conditions (all p>0.05). Submaximal exercise heart rate and ventilation were higher in both KE conditions compared to PLAC (141±11 and 141±12 vs 137±12 beats/min; 63±14 and 62±13 vs 60±13 L/min, respectively; all p<0.05). Peak power output at V̇O2peak was lower in KE-HI compared to both KE-LO and PLAC (329±60 vs 339±62 and 341±61 W; both p<0.05). Conclusion: KE supplementation did not alter exercise efficiency during submaximal cycling. KE ingestion increased cardiorespiratory stress during submaximal exercise and the higher dose reduced peak aerobic power output. Future studies should investigate the mechanisms by which KE ingestion alters exercise responses. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc) / Endurance exercise performance is determined by many variables including the efficiency of the individual. This can be measured during cycling by calculating the ratio of oxygen uptake relative to power output. Ketone supplements have been suggested to alter exercise efficiency. We investigated this issue by having trained adults complete an incremental cycling protocol on three occasions. Before exercise the participants ingested either a small or large dose of a ketone supplement or a taste-matched placebo drink. Exercise efficiency was not different between the conditions but ventilation rate and heart rate were higher during the ketone supplemented trials compared to the placebo. The power output that the participants could achieve at maximal exercise was reduced in the high dose ketone condition. Our study does not support the use of ketone supplements as a strategy to enhance endurance exercise performance. Future studies should investigate the mechanisms by which ketones affect exercise responses.

The purpose of this study was to assess the changes in maximal oxygen consumption and cardiorespiratory responses to maximal treadmill exercise of men, who engaged in intense physical training for more than 35-years. Thirteen men were first studied in 1969 and were re-examined in 1992 as a 25-year follow-up. The men were divided into two groups, group 1 (G1) and group 2 (G2). G1 (current age = 54.6 years) consisted of seven men who were Division I cross country runners in the late 1960's, and G2 (current age = 67.5 years) were highly active at the initial testing and were 14 years older than the men of G1 at all test dates. A maximal exercise test revealed a significant decrease in absolute and realtiveVO2ma, over the 35-years for both G1 and G2. G2 experienced a significant decline in VO2max when expressed in relative and absolute terms after the age of 56.5 years which occurred after the 25-year test. Maximal heat rate decreased over the 35-year period for both G1 (187.7 to 165.8 bpm) and G2 (181 to 164.7bpm), however only GI revealed a trend between the 25-and 35-year tests. O2pulse significantly decreased from the initial testing to the 35-year period in G2 (23.1 to 19.5 ml/beat). Body composition changes were evident with aging in that both GI and G2 had a significant increase in percent body fat over the 35-years however, only Gl had a significant increase in body weight at both the 25-and 35-year follow-up.These data suggest that aging and a reduced training regimen may have a significant effect upon VO2m and cardiorespiratory and body composition measures. It appears that after the age of 56 years, a greater reduction in VO2max occurs, which is accompanied by greater changes in stroke volume. Although the aerobic capacity of these men declined over the 35-year period, the values obtained by all men far exceeded the values reported for sedentary and less active men in other studies. Therefore, as previously reported, aging is associated with a reduction in aerobic capacity, however continued endurance training can reduce the rate at which aerobic capacity declines. / Fisher Institute for Wellness and Gerontology

O consumo máximo de oxigênio (VO2máx), o limiar ventilatório (LV), ponto de compensação respiratória (PCR) e a economia de corrida (EC) são importantes variáveis fisiológicas associadas com a aptidão aeróbia em corrida. Acredita-se que o polimorfismo da enzima conversora de angiotensina (ECA) possa estar influenciando nos valores dessas variáveis. Contudo, essa relação causal não tem sido amplamente estudada durante a corrida. Dessa forma, o objetivo do presente trabalho foi investigar a associação entre os genótipos da ECA e o VO2máx, LV, PCR e EC mensuradas durante a corrida em esteira. Cento e cinquenta (n = 150) voluntários fisicamente ativos realizaram os seguintes testes: a) teste incremental máximo para determinação do VO2máx, LV e PCR; b) dois testes de velocidade constante (10 km/h e 12 km/h) em esteira para determinação da EC. Os genótipos apresentaram a frequência de: II = 21% ; ID = 52% e DD = 27%. Os resultados apresentaram uma tendência dos indivíduos com o genótipo II apresentarem maiores valores do VO2máx (p = 0.08), bem como a análise do efeito prático apresentou um possível efeito benéfico desse genótipo. No entanto, não foi constatada diferença entre os valores do LV, PCR, e EC entre os indivíduos. Esses resultados sugerem que o genótipo II da ECA pode estar influenciando nos valores da variável máxima relacionada com o consumo de oxigênio / The maximal oxygen uptake (VO2máx), ventilatory threshold (VT), respiratory compensation point (RCP), and running economy (RE) are important variables associated with running aerobic fitness. However, the influence of Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (ACE) polymorphism on these variables determined in running has not been largely investigated. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the relationship between ACE genotypes and maximal oxygen uptake, respiratory compensation point, and running economy measured in running. One hundred and fifty (n = 150) physically active young men performed the following tests: a) a maximal incremental treadmill test to determine VO2máx and RCP, b) two constant-speed running test (10 km.h-1 and 12 km.h-1) to determine the RE. The genotype frequency were II = 21 %; ID = 52 %; DD = 27 %. There were a likely beneficial effect and a tendency for the participants with ACE II genotype to have higher VO2max values than DD or ID genotypes (p = 0.08) and the smallest worthwhile effects show a beneficial effect. There were not associations between the genotypes for RCP and RE. These findings suggest that II ACE genotype would influence in maximal variable correlated with oxygen consumption

The purpose of this study was to determine the validity of the Ebbeling one-stage submaximal treadmill protocol to estimate maximal oxygen uptake in overweight males and females. Forty-five male and females (36.5±10.9 years; 170.2±9.9 cm; 77.9±9.0 kg) were categorized into overweight groups using a BMI of 25-29.9 kg/m2. The subjects performed a submaximal protocol that consisted of one 4-minute stage with individualized speeds of 2.0-4.5 mph at 5% grade and subsequently performed a maximal exercise test. There were significant relationships between observed and estimated VO2max for males (r=.796), females (r=.426), and gender combined (r=.844). There was an underestimation in the estimation of VO2max in the present study when comparing males (10%), females (26%) and gender combined (17%) subjects. The results indicated that a body mass index between the values of 25-29.9 kg/m2 did create a difference in estimating VO2max in the present study when comparing that to Ebbeling et al. (1991).Ball State UniversityMuncie, IN 47306 / School of Physical Education

Background: The need to find the underlying causes to handball injuries and to develop injury prevention programs is great. In other sports a relationship between maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 max) and injury have been seen. Purpose: To examine the relationship between VO2 max and/or lactate threshold and injuries in elite handball players. Methods: A prospective, non experimental correlational study was conducted. Thirty elite handball players and handball high school players were included. Injuries and test results for VO2-max, lactate threshold and potential confounders ( re-injury of the previous injury, re- injury of previous injury of the lower limb, age, BMI and legs and core strength for the high school players) were registered during the season 2014-2015. A bivariate analysis using Spearman's rank correlation calculation was conducted. Twenty-six respectively 11 of the players had data on VO2-max, respectively lactate threshold. Confounders that showed connection with injuries or injuries in the lower extremity were analyzed for the bivariate correlation with VO2-max and lactate threshold. Results: No significant correlation was found between VO2-max respectively lactate threshold and injury. Significant correlations were seen between previous injury respectively previous injury to the lower extremity and to get a re-injury. A significant correlation were seen between re-injury of a previous injury in the lower limb and VO2-max. Conclusions: Significant associations were seen between re- injury of earlier injury and between re-injury of the lower extremity and VO2-max and should therefore be considered in the clinical practice. Larger studies are needed to clarify the relationship between VO2-max and lactate threshold and injuries. / Bakgrund: Behovet att hitta bakomliggande orsaker till handbollsskador för att kunna utforma skadepreventiva åtgärder är stort. I andra idrotter har ett samband mellan maximal syreupptagningsförmåga (VO2-max) och skador kunnat ses. Syfte: Att undersöka samband mellan VO2-max och/eller laktattröskelvärde och skador hos elithandbollspelare. Metod: En prospektiv icke experimentell sambandsstudie utfördes. Trettio elithandbollsspelare och handbollsgymnasiespelare inkluderades. Skador och testresultat för VO2-max och laktattröskel samt tänkbara konfounders (återskada av tidigare generell skada, återskada av tidigare skada i nedre extremitet, ålder, BMI och ben och bålstyrka för gymnasiespelarna) registrerades under matchsäsongen 2014-2015. En bivariat analys med Spearmans rangkorrelationsberäkning utfördes. Tjugosex respektive 11 av spelarna hade data på VO2-max respektive laktattröskelvärde. Konfounders som visade samband med generella skador eller skador i nedre extremiteten analyserades bivariat för samband med VO2-max och laktattröskelvärde. Resultat: Inga signifikanta samband fanns mellan VO2-max respektive laktattröskelvärde och skador. Signifikanta samband fanns för tidigare generella skador respektive tidigare skada i nedre extremiteten och att återfå densamma samt mellan återskada av tidigare skada i nedre extremiteten och VO2-max. Konklusion: Signifikanta samband fanns för återskada av tidigare skada samt mellan återskada i nedre extremiteten och VO2-max vilket bör beaktas i den kliniska vardagen. Större studier behövs för att klargöra det sambandet mellan VO2-max respektive laktattröskel och skador.