La mémoire Flash est célèbre dans le domaine des mémoires non volatiles ; elle est actuellement extrêmement utilisée pour le stockage des données numériques dans presque tous type d'appareil électronique nomade (ordinateur portable, téléphone mobile, tablette, …). Pour dépasser ses limites actuelles (densité d'informations, rapidité d'accès, endurance), un grand nombre de recherches se développent, explorant notamment le concept de mémoires résistives (Re-RAM), qui repose sur la commutation entre deux états de résistance (ou plus) via l'application d'une tension. Les mémoires Re-RAM dont la variation de résistance dépend de réactions électrochimiques sont potentiellement de bonnes candidates ; les mécanismes d'oxydo-réduction impliqués sont cependant souvent de type filamentaire, mettant notamment en jeu des migrations de cations d’éléments métalliques (provenant des électrodes), ou de lacunes d’oxygène. Ce caractère filamentaire rend difficilement atteignable la miniaturisation extrême, à l’échelle nanométrique.Dans ce but, une classe de matériaux complètement différente -utilisée dans le domaine du stockage d'énergie- est explorée. L’objectif de cette thèse est ainsi d’approfondir l’étude des phénomènes de commutation de résistance observés sur des films de LixCoO2. Nous caractérisons d'abord les propriétés structurales et électriques, à l'échelle nanométrique, de tels films déposés sur divers types de substrats. Nous cherchons ensuite à déterminer les mécanismes électrochimiques à l’origine des modifications : celles-ci vont en effet en sens inverse pour un même signe de tension, selon que l’on se trouve dans la configuration d’un contact nanométrique pointe AFM/film, ou dans la configuration d’un contact micrométrique électrode/film/électrode. Dans la première configuration nous déterminons les réactions électrochimiques impliquées. Dans la deuxième, nous proposons un mécanisme radicalement différent, corroboré par plusieurs résultats convergents. Enfin, nous exposons de premiers résultats prometteurs, relatifs à l’applicabilité potentielle de ces films aux mémoires Re-RAM, et au-delà, aux circuits neuromorphiques (états multiples de résistance – phénomènes d'additivité). / Flash memory has been famous in the field of non-volatile memory; currently it is extremely used for digital data storage in almost type of mobile electronic device (laptop, mobile phone, tablet ...). To overcome its current limitations (information density, access speed, endurance), a large number of research develop, especially exploring the concept of resistive memory (Re- RAM), which is based on switching between two resistance states (or more) via the application of a voltage.The Re-RAM whose resistance change depends on electrochemical reactions are potentially good candidates; the involved redox mechanisms are often, with particular cations migration of metal elements (between the electrodes), or oxygen deficiencies. This filamentary nature makes difficult to achieve extreme miniaturization at the nanoscale.For this purpose, a completely different class of materials - used in the field of energy storage - is explored. The objective of this thesis is thus to deepen the study of resistance switching phenomena observed in films LixCoO2. We first characterize the structural and electrical properties at the nanoscale, such films deposited on various types of substrates. We then seek to determine the electrochemical mechanisms underlying modification: they are in effect in reverse for the same sign of potential, as it is in the configuration of a contact nanoscale AFM tip / film, or in the configuration of a micrometer contact electrode / film / electrode. In the first configuration we determine the electrochemical reactions involved. In the second, we propose a radically different mechanism, supported by several converging results. Finally, we present promising first results regarding the potential applicability of these films to Re - RAM, and beyond, the neuromorphic circuits (multiple resistance states - additivity phenomena).

The main idea of this thesis is measurements of dielectric materials by using a device Tettex. The thesis is about basic physic properties of dielectric materials. The determination of a dielectric material is considered. The behavior of these materials in electrical fields and reasons, those can have an influence on it, are considered as well. In the text are described measuring methods of chosen parameters of dielectric materials by device Tettex and its functional principles. There are an evaluation of measurements, which were done, and a discussion about achieved results.

Isolates of Monilinia fructicola (Wint.) Honey obtained from stone fruit orchards in Hawkes Bay, North Island and from Californian fruit exported to New Zealand, were tested for resistance to methyl benzimidazole carbamate (MBC). Resistant isolates from the North Island had EC₅₀ values of >30,000, and most isolates from the imported fruit had of values approximately 1.5 mg a.i./l carbendazim. Sensitive isolates failed to grow on 1 mg a.i./l carbendazim. A detached peach shoot system was used in controlled conditions for estimation of values for incubation period, latent period and rate of spore production on flowers (cv Glohaven). The same variables and the rate of colonisation of host tissue were measured on fruit (cv Fantasia) in controlled conditions. An inoculum density of 1x10⁴ spore/flower or fruit greatly increased fitness in vivo compared to an inoculum density of 1x10² spore/flower (fruit). Isolates varied considerably, but there was no consistent relationship between the degrees of resistance and fitness. This was in contrast to earlier studies with dicarboximide resistant strains of M. fructicola. The survival in the field of 10 isolates resistant or sensitive to MBC or dicarboximide fungicides on twig cankers and mummified fruit was compared. The ability to produce conidia on twig cankers inoculated in late spring 1989 was maintained by all sensitive and MBC resistant isolates for at least 1 year. The production of conidia on mummified fruit inoculated in February 1990 decreased after 2-3 months in the field but some conidia were still produced on all fruit in the following spring. Dicarboximide resistant isolates produced less conidia than either the MBC resistant and the sensitive isolates. The pathogenicity and fitness of all isolates were similar to the original values after survival for 1 year. A technique was developed to produce apothecia reliably from inoculated peach (cv Black Boy) and nectarine (cv Fantasia) fruit in controlled conditions in the laboratory. The fruit were inoculated with resistant or sensitive isolates, or combinations, and were incubated for 8 weeks at 25°C (±1°C) with 12 hours photoperiod of fluorescent light (Sylvania 2x65 W, daylight) to produce mummified fruit. The fruit were then buried in moist autoclaved peat moss for 10 weeks at 25°C (±1°C) in the dark to form stromata. These fruit were then hydrated with running tap-water (total hardness (CaCO₃) = 47 g/m³ and conductivity at 20°C = 12.7 mS/m) for 72 hours. The hydrated mummified fruit were placed in moist peat moss and were incubated for 13-14 weeks at 8°C (±0.5°C) in the dark. At the end of this period, stipe initials were visible. Differentiation of stipe initials into mature apothecia occurred within 15-20 days after transfer to 12°C (±2 °C) with a 12 hour photoperiod of fluorescent and incandescent light. All isolates produced apothecia when treated in this way. A technique for isolation of ascospore sets in linear arrangement was developed for tetrad analysis of the inheritance of resistance. At least 3 hours of fluorescent and incandescent light at 12°C (±2°C) was essential to allow ascospore ejection from individual asci taken from apothecia previously maintained in a 12 hour photoperiod at 12°C (±1°C). A water film on the surface of water agar was necessary to hold a set of ejected ascospores in linear sequence. Single ascospores were obtained in sequence with the aid of a micromanipulator. Genetic analysis of MBC resistant isolates was carried out on ascospores derived from apothecia produced in the laboratory. Analysis of ascospore sets in linear arrangement and ascospore populations indicated that resistance to >30,000 mg a.i./l carbendazim (high-resistant) is governed by a single major gene and is affected by gene conversion mechanisms. Crossing over was frequent, suggesting that recombination of resistance with other characters, such as pathogenicity and fitness, may occur readily. The segregation ratio (1:1) from most resistant isolates revealed that heterokaryons containing both resistant and sensitive alleles were common in resistant populations and that resistance is dominant. Allozyme analysis of ascospore progeny through electrophoresis revealed a narrow genetic base of M. fructicola in New Zealand. The technique for reliable apothecial production in controlled conditions developed in this study provided an important step for the determination of the biology of M. fructicola strains resistant to MBC fungicides, and the complexity of its life cycle. Genetic heterogeneity in field populations can be conserved in one isolate through heterokaryosis, thus providing for adaptability of the pathogen to the changing environmental conditions. Knowledge on genetic variability, overwintering ability, pathogenicity and fitness factors may be useful for future management strategies of stone fruit brown rot. Special emphasis should be made in particular to prevent primary infection on blossoms, which would delay the establishment of recombinant strains of M. fructicola and the onset of brown rot epidemics.