Water-soluble deep-cavity cavitands provide a rare opportunity to study self-assembly driven by the hydrophobic effect. These molecular hosts dimerize in the presence of certain guest molecules to form water-soluble molecular capsules. These systems have given rise to numerous novel chemical phenomena and have potential use in drug delivery. The host octaacid (OA) has been particularly well-characterized, but studies are limited to basic pH because of limited host solubility. Herein we report an improved synthesis of OA and the syntheses of three new water-soluble deep-cavity cavitands. The new hosts are soluble at neutral pH, increasing relevance for biological studies. The new syntheses are versatile enough to apply to the synthesis of additional water- soluble cavitands in the future. We also describe preliminary characterization of the molecular recognition properties of the new hosts. Binding of organic guest molecules to form 1:1 host:guest complexes and 2:1 host:guest capsules was qualitatively similar to that of OA. However, binding of anions spanning the Hofmeister series revealed interesting new behavior. The new hosts bound a wider range of anions inside the hydrophobic pocket with much higher association constants. Moreover, external binding of several anions to the cavitand pendant feet was observed. Looking towards biological applications, we desired to learn how these molecules interact with phospholipid membranes. Six water-soluble cavitands were tested for their ability to permeabilize liposomal POPC membranes. One host showed very high potency in permeabilizing membranes, while three other hosts showed moderate activity. Host binding of POPC was found to be at least one factor in host-induced permeabilization. A requenching assay to determine leakage mechanism strongly supported all-or-none leakage, whereby some vesicles lose all contents while others lose none. These results suggest that these cavitands induce partial transient leakage of vesicles by the formation of transient membrane pores. These findings show potential for the use of these hosts as drug delivery carriers, antimicrobial compounds, and tools in membrane alteration studies.

Many biosurfactants show antimicrobial activity and some are found to be superior for isolating membrane proteins. This study was aimed towards a general understanding of the interactions of biosurfactants with lipid membranes on a molecular level. To this end, a new, fluorescence lifetime-based membrane leakage assay has been established that does not only quantify membrane permeabilization more precisely but reveals also the leakage mechanism. This mechanism, referred to as graded or all-or-none leakage, is crucial for interpreting potential biological activities and modes of action. Lipopeptides of the surfactin, fengycin, and iturin families as produced by Bacillus subtilis were studied along with synthetic surfactants. Their membrane permeabilizing activity and selectivity mirrored, to some extent, the active concentrations and fungicidal selectivity of the compounds in vivo. Furthermore, the effects of co-surfactants and co-solvents (glycerol, urea, DMSO) have been investigated to better understand and predict means of improving the performance of fungicidal products as well as conditions for membrane protein solubilization.

Many biosurfactants show antimicrobial activity and some are found to be superior for isolating membrane proteins. This study was aimed towards a general understanding of the interactions of biosurfactants with lipid membranes on a molecular level. To this end, a new, fluorescence lifetime-based membrane leakage assay has been established that does not only quantify membrane permeabilization more precisely but reveals also the leakage mechanism. This mechanism, referred to as graded or all-or-none leakage, is crucial for interpreting potential biological activities and modes of action. Lipopeptides of the surfactin, fengycin, and iturin families as produced by Bacillus subtilis were studied along with synthetic surfactants. Their membrane permeabilizing activity and selectivity mirrored, to some extent, the active concentrations and fungicidal selectivity of the compounds in vivo. Furthermore, the effects of co-surfactants and co-solvents (glycerol, urea, DMSO) have been investigated to better understand and predict means of improving the performance of fungicidal products as well as conditions for membrane protein solubilization.

In the last decade, a tremendous gain in knowledge concerning the molecular events of apoptosis signaling and execution has been achieved. The aim of this thesis was to clarify the role of lysosomal membrane permeabilization and lysosomal proteases, cathepsins, in signaling for apoptosis. We identified cathepsin D as an important factor in staurosporine-induced human fibroblast cell death. After release to the cytosol, cathepsin D promoted mitochondrial release of cytochrome c by proteolytic activation of Bid. Cathepsin D-mediated cleavage of Bid generated two fragments with the apparent molecular mass of 15 and 19 kDa. By sequence analysis, three cathepsin D-specific cleavage sites, Phe24, Trp48, and Phe183, were identified. Moreover, we investigated the mechanism by which cathepsins escape the lysosomal compartment, and found that Bax is translocated from the cytosol to lysosomes upon staurosporine treatment. In agreement with these data, recombinant Bax triggered release of cathepsins from isolated rat liver lysosomes. Conceivably, the Bcl-2 family of proteins may govern release of pro-apoptotic factors from both lysosomes and mitochondria. The importance of lysosomal cathepsins in apoptosis signaling was studied also in oral squamous cell carcinoma cells following exposure to the redox-cycling drug naphthazarin or agonistic anti-Fas antibodies. In this experimental system, cathepsins were released to the cytosol, however, inhibition of neither cathepsin D, nor cysteine cathepsin activity suppressed cell death. Interestingly, cysteine cathepsins still appeared to be involved in activation of the caspase cascade. Cathepsins are often overexpressed and secreted by cancer cells, and it has been reported that extracellular cathepsins promote tumor growth and metastasis. Here, we propose that cathepsin B secreted from cancer cells may suppress cancer cell death by shedding of the Fas death receptor. Defects in the regulation of apoptosis contribute to a wide variety of diseases, such as cancer, neurodegeneration and autoimmunity. Increased knowledge of the molecular details of apoptosis could lead to novel, more effective, treatments for these illnesses. This thesis emphasizes the importance of the lysosomal death pathway, which is a promising target for future therapeutic intervention. / In the last decade, a tremendous gain in knowledge concerning the molecular events of apoptosis signaling and execution has been achieved. The aim of this thesis was to clarify the role of lysosomal membrane permeabilization and lysosomal proteases, cathepsins, in signaling for apoptosis. We identified cathepsin D as an important factor in staurosporine-induced human fibroblast cell death. After release to the cytosol, cathepsin D promoted mitochondrial release of cytochrome c by proteolytic activation of Bid. Cathepsin D-mediated cleavage of Bid generated two fragments with the apparent molecular mass of 15 and 19 kDa. By sequence analysis, three cathepsin D-specific cleavage sites, Phe24, Trp48, and Phe183, were identified. Moreover, we investigated the mechanism by which cathepsins escape the lysosomal compartment, and found that Bax is translocated from the cytosol to lysosomes upon staurosporine treatment. In agreement with these data, recombinant Bax triggered release of cathepsins from isolated rat liver lysosomes. Conceivably, the Bcl-2 family of proteins may govern release of pro-apoptotic factors from both lysosomes and mitochondria. The importance of lysosomal cathepsins in apoptosis signaling was studied also in oral squamous cell carcinoma cells following exposure to the redox-cycling drug naphthazarin or agonistic anti-Fas antibodies. In this experimental system, cathepsins were released to the cytosol, however, inhibition of neither cathepsin D, nor cysteine cathepsin activity suppressed cell death. Interestingly, cysteine cathepsins still appeared to be involved in activation of the caspase cascade. Cathepsins are often overexpressed and secreted by cancer cells, and it has been reported that extracellular cathepsins promote tumor growth and metastasis. Here, we propose that cathepsin B secreted from cancer cells may suppress cancer cell death by shedding of the Fas death receptor. Defects in the regulation of apoptosis contribute to a wide variety of diseases, such as cancer, neurodegeneration and autoimmunity. Increased knowledge of the molecular details of apoptosis could lead to novel, more effective, treatments for these illnesses. This thesis emphasizes the importance of the lysosomal death pathway, which is a promising target for future therapeutic intervention.

Electric field mediated gene delivery modalities have preferable safety profiles with the ability to rapidly transfect cells in vitro and in vivo with high efficiency. However, the current state of the art has relied on trial and error studies that target the average cell within a population present in treated tissue to derive electric pulse parameters. This results in fixed gene electrotransfer (GET) parameters that are not universally optimum. Slow progress towards the validation of a mechanism that explains this phenomena has also hindered its advancement in the clinic. To date, GET methods utilizing feedback control as a means to optimize doses of electric field stimulation have not been investigated. However, with modern electric components the electric characteristics of tissue exposed to electric pulses can be measured in very short time scales allowing for a near instantaneous assessment of the effect these pulses have on cells and tissue. This information is ideal for use in optimizing GET parameters to ensure the conditions necessary for gene delivery can be created regardless of anisotropic tissue architecture and electrode geometry. Bioimpedance theory draws parallels between cell structures and circuit components in an attempt to use circuit theory to describe changes occurring at a cellular and tissue level. In short, a reduction in tissue impedance indicates a reduction to the opposition of current flow in a volume conductor indicating new pathways for current. It has been purported these new pathways exist in the cell membrane and indicate a degree of membrane permeability/destabilization that either indicates or facilitates the uptake of exogenous molecules, such as nucleic acids or plasmid DNA. This study evaluated the use of relative impedance changes from 10 Hz – 10 kHz that occur in tissue before and after GET to indicate relative increase in tissue and membrane permeability. An optimum reduction in impedance was then identified as an indicator of the degree of membrane permeability required to significantly enhance exogenous DNA uptake into cells. This study showed the use of impedance-based feedback control to optimize GET pulse number in real time to target 80% or 95% reduction in tissue impedance resulted in an 12 and 14 fold increase in transgene expression over controls and a 6 and 7 fold increase in transgene expression over fixed pulse open loop protocols.

Depuis plusieurs années, de nouvelles méthodologies basées sur l’utilisation du champ électrique pour agir ou caractériser les cellules ou les tissus cellulaires génèrent de nombreuses avancées et apportent des nouvelles promesses dans les laboratoires de recherche et dans l'industrie : diagnostic de cancer, ElectroChimioThérapie (insertion d’un médicament en perméabilisant les membranes des cellules), thérapie génique (insertion d’un gène thérapeutique), immunothérapie (vaccins anti-tumoraux obtenus par électrofusion de cellules dendritiques et cellules cancéreuses pour réactiver le système immunitaire).L’application d’ impulsions électriques à des cellules ou dans des tissus cellulaires induit un changement sur leurs propriétés, en particulier sur leurs membranes qui deviennent transitoirement perméables, laissant temporairement le passage aux ions et macro-molécules. Les phénomènes induits lors d’une perméabilisation par application de champ électrique ont été partiellement caractérisés en microscopie epi-fluorescence. Pour effectuer un suivi en temps réel de la dynamique du processus de l’électroperméabilisation, une voie prometteuse consiste à caractériser électriquement l’échantillon. Dans cet objectif, mon travail de thèse consiste à mettre en oeuvre le suivi en temps réel de l’évolution des caractéristiques électriques sur une large bande de fréquences d’un tissu cellulaire ou d’une cellule isolée, avant, pendant et après la sollicitation par un champ électrique pulsé.Dans le cadre de ma thèse un modèle du système biologique et de son environnement a été élaboré, afin de mieux décrire des phénomènes observés expérimentalement: effet des sollicitations électriques sur la viabilité cellulaire, sur la perméabilité de la membrane externe, effets induits sur les composés intracellulaires, dynamique de fusion membranaire. Le degré de perméabilisation de l’objet biologique (cellule ou tissu) dépend de manière fortement non-linéaire de nombreux paramètres, ce qui rend complexe l’élaboration de ce modèle et son interprétation. La détection de ce niveau de perméabilisation est effectuée en temps réel (mesure du niveau de perméabilisation avant, pendant et après l’application de l’impulsion électrique). In fine cette approche devrait permettre d’optimiser le taux de perméabilisation cellulaire en fonction de l’application considérée. Ce système de contrôle individuel du niveau de perméabilisation cellulaire pourrait à terme être parallélisé massivement sur une puce dédiée à l’électroporation d’un grand nombre de cellules. Afin d’avoir une vision multi-échelle des effets, l’étude a été menée sur plusieurs modèles expérimentaux: qui vont du tissu (échelle millimétrique) à la cellule unique, en passant par les échelles intermédiaires (caractérisation de spéroides cellulaires).Dans ces deux derniers cas (sphéroide, cellule unique) l’objet biologique est isolé dans une biopuce microfluidique équipée d’électrodes de mesure et d’application du champ (échelle micrométrique).Les micro-dispositifs que j’ai réalisé pour caractériser en temps réel la perméabilisation de cellules, intègrent une géométrie spécifique d’électrodes, ainsi que d'un réseau de canaux microfluidiques pour contrôler le débit de cellules Le degré de miniaturisation de ces puces permet de travailler au niveau de la cellule unique, et appliquer des champs électriques de forte amplitude, de forte fréquence, localisés spatialement. / The increasing interest for new methodologies based on the use of the electric field to characterize the cells or tissue cells and generate brought promising development in research laboratories and industry: cancer diagnosis, electrochemotherapy (insertion of a drug after cell membranes permeabilization), gene therapy (insertion of a therapeutic gene), immunotherapy (anti-tumor vaccines obtained by electrofusion of dendritic cells and cancer cells to activate the immune system).The application of electrical pulses to cells or cell tissues induces a change in their properties, in particular on their membranes which become transiently permeable, and temporarily allow the passage of ions and macromolecules. Effect linked to the permeabilization phenomenon have been partially characterized by epi-fluorescence microscopy. Nevertheless, in order to perform the real-time monitoring of the electroporation process and know its dynamics, the electrical sample characterization is employed. Thus the aim of this work is to implement a real-time monitoring of dielectrical characteristics changes, on a wide frequency range, of a cellular tissue or a single cell, before, during and after the pulsed electric field application.As part of my thesis a model of the biological system has been developed to better describe the phenomena observed experimentally: effect of electrical stress on cell viability, on the permeability of the outer membrane, induced effects on the intracellular compounds, dynamics of membrane fusion.The degree of permeabilization of the biological sample (cells or tissues) is non linearly dependent of several parameters, which makes complicated the development of the model and its interpretation.The detection of a specific level of permeabilization is done in real time (measure of the level of permeabilization before, during and after the electric pulses application). This cell permeabilization level control could eventually be parallelized on a chip dedicated to the electroporation of a large number of cells. The latter can be used to optimize the electric pulses parameters in order to reach the desired permeabilization level. In order to have a multi-scale overview of the phenomenon, the study was performed on different size-level: from the tissue level (millimeter scale) to the single cell model through the intermediate scales (cell spéroides characterization).In the latter two cases (spheroid, single cell) the biological sample is isolated in a microfluidic biochip where the electric field solicitation are applied (micrometer scale).The microdevice designed and fabricated during this work, allows the real time characterization of the cell permeabilization. Furthermore the miniaturization of the system is crucial to work at the level of the single cell, and make possible the application of electrical fields of high amplitude, high frequency and spatially localized.

La recherche de nouvelles molécules bioactives utilisables en thérapeutique est un enjeu majeur de santé publique en particulier dans le traitement de certaines maladies telle que les infections bactériennes.La résistance naturelle des bactéries et la surutilisation des antibiotiques ont entraîné la sélection de bactéries pathogènes résistantes à de multiples médicaments. Depuis les dernières décennies, la résistance aux antibiotiques conventionnels a limité les options thérapeutiques, entraînant une augmentation significative de la mortalité et de la morbidité dans les hôpitaux. En outre, depuis 1970, seules deux nouvelles classes d'antibiotiques ont été mises sur le marché. Les venins constituent une source riche de substances naturelles pharmacologiquement actives uniques et novatrices, tels que les peptides antimicrobiens (PAMs) qui représentent une alternative originale pour remédier à ce problème de santé publique.Dans notre étude, parmi les 200 venins d’animaux étudiés pour leurs propriétés antibactériennes, au moins six PAMs ont été isolés à partir d’un venin d’insecte. Le peptide 1 original inhibe la croissance des bactéries Gram positives et négatives mais présente une forte hémotoxicité (IT = 1,6-3,2). La synthèse en phase solide d’analogues structuraux a permis d’identifier R1W8 et I1N11, moins toxiques (IT = 18 et >800 respectivement). Les résultats préliminaires de l’étude du mécanisme d’action suggèrent que ces peptides agissent contre les bactéries par perméabilisation de leur membrane cytoplasmique. Ces peptides peuvent servir de modèles pour l’élaboration de nouveaux agents antimicrobiens. / The research for new bioactive molecules which can be used in therapeutic is a major public health issue, particularly in the treatment of certain diseases such as bacterial infections.The natural resistance of bacteria consecutive to overuse of antibiotics have resulted in the selection of pathogenic multi-drug resistant bacteria. Over the last few decades, resistance to conventional antibiotics has limited treatment options, resulting in a significant increase in mortality and morbidity in hospitals. Moreover, since 1970, only two new classes of antibiotics have been placed on the market. Venoms are known to be a rich source of unique and innovative pharmacologically active substances, such as antimicrobial peptides (PAMs), which represent an original alternative to small molecules for the development of new active and non-resistance inducing antibiotics.In our study, among the 200 venoms of animals studied for their antibacterial properties, at least six PAMs were isolated from an insect venom. The original peptide 1 inhibits the growth of Gram positive and negative bacteria but shows a high hemotoxicity (TI = 1,6-3,2). The solid phase synthesis of structural analogs allowed to identify R1W8 and I1N11, less toxic (TI = 18 et >800 respectively). The preliminary results of the action mechanism study suggest that these peptides have a pore-forming action on bacteria cytoplasmic membrane. These peptides can be used as models for the development of new antimicrobial agents.

L'électroporation est un procédé physique qui consiste à appliquer des impulsions de champ électrique pour perméabiliser de manière transitoire ou permanente la membrane plasmique. Ce phénomène est d'un grand intérêt dans le domaine clinique ainsi que dans l'industrie en raison de ses diverses applications, notamment l'électrochimiothérapie qui combine les impulsions électriques à l'administration d'une molécule cytotoxique, dans le cadre du traitement des tumeurs. L'analyse de ce phénomène est traditionnellement réalisée à l'aide des méthodes optique et biochimique (microscopie, cytométrie en flux, test biochimique). Elles sont très efficaces mais nécessitent l'utilisation d'une large gamme de fluorochromes et de marqueurs dont la mise en œuvre peut être laborieuse et coûteuse tout en ayant un caractère invasif aux cellules. Durant ces dernières années, le développement de nouveaux outils biophysiques pour l'étude de l'électroporation a pris place, tels que la diélectrophorèse et la spectroscopie d'impédance (basse fréquence). Outre une facilité de mise en œuvre, ces méthodes représentent un intérêt dans l'étude des modifications membranaires de la cellule. De là vient l'intérêt d'opérer au-delà du GHz, dans la gamme des micro-ondes, pour laquelle la membrane cytoplasmique devient transparente et le contenu intracellulaire est exposé. L'extraction de la permittivité relative suite à l'interaction champ électromagnétique/cellules biologiques reflète alors l'état cellulaire. Cette technique, la spectroscopie diélectrique hyperfréquence, se présente comme une méthode pertinente pour analyser les effets de l'électroporation sur la viabilité cellulaire. De plus, elle ne nécessite aucune utilisation des molécules exogènes (non-invasivité) et les mesures sont directement réalisées dans le milieu de culture des cellules. Deux objectifs ont été définis lors de cette thèse dont les travaux se situent à l'interface entre trois domaines scientifiques : la biologie cellulaire, l'électronique hyperfréquence et les micro-technologies. Le premier objectif concerne la transposition de l'électroporation conventionnelle à l'échelle micrométrique, qui a montré une efficacité aussi performante que la première. La deuxième partie du travail concerne l'étude par spectroscopie diélectrique HyperFréquence de cellules soumises à différents traitements électriques (combinés ou non à une molécule cytotoxique). Ces travaux présentent une puissance statistique et montrent une très bonne corrélation (R2 >0 .94) avec des techniques standards utilisées en biologie, ce qui valide 'biologiquement' la méthode d'analyse HF dans le contexte d'électroporation. Ces travaux montrent en outre que la spectroscopie diélectrique hyperfréquence s'avère être une technique puissante, capable de révéler la viabilité cellulaire suite à un traitement chimique et/ou électrique. Ils ouvrent la voie à l'analyse 'non-invasive' par spectroscopie diélectrique HyperFréquence de cellules électroporées in-situ. / Electroporation is a physical process that consists in applying electric field pulses to transiently or permanently permeabilize the plasma membrane. This phenomenon is of great interest in the clinical field as well as in the industry because of its various applications, in particular electrochemotherapy which combines electrical pulses with the administration of a cytotoxic molecule in the treatment of tumors. The evaluation of this phenomenon is raditionally carried out using optical and biochemical methods (microscopy, flow cytometry, biochemical test). They are very effective but require the use of a wide range of fluorochromes and markers, which can be laborious and costly to implement, while being invasive to the cells. In recent years, the development of new biophysical tools for the study of electroporation has taken place, such as dielectrophoresis and impedance spectroscopy (low frequency). In addition to the ease of implementation, these methods are of interest in the study of membrane modifications of the cell. Hence the advantage of operating beyond the GHz, in the range of microwaves, for which the cytoplasmic membrane becomes transparent and the intracellular content is exposed. The extraction of the relative permittivity as a result of the electromagnetic field / biological cell interaction then reflects the cell state. This technique, microwave dielectric spectroscopy, is a relevant method for analyzing the effects of electroporation on cell viability. Moreover, it does not require any use of the exogenous molecules (non-invasive) and the measurements are directly carried out in the culture medium of the cells. Two objectives were defined during this thesis whose work is located at the interface between three scientific fields: cellular biology, microwave electronics and micro-technologies. The first objective concerns the transposition of conventional electroporation to the micrometric scale, which has shown an efficiency as efficient as the first. The second part of the work concerns the study by HighFrequency dielectric spectroscopy of cells subjected to different electrical treatments (combined or not with a cytotoxic molecule). This work presents a statistical power and shows a very good correlation (R2> 0.94) with standard techniques used in biology, which biologically validates the HF analysis method in the context of electroporation. This work also shows that microwave dielectric spectroscopy proves to be a powerful technique capable of revealing cell viability following chemical and / or electrical treatment. They open the way to 'non-invasive' analysis by hyper-frequency dielectric spectroscopy of electroporated cells in situ.

Adjacent cells communicate through gap junctions (GJs). These GJs are formed by head to head docking of two hemichannels (HCs) from two adjacent cells. HCs are connexin hexamer proteins. Connexin mutation is the most frequent cause of childhood hearing loss. This hearing impairment affects 2 in every 2000 children. Inhibition of the HCs might be the key factor to treat such disorders. A library of amphiphilic kanamycins was synthesized to be tested as HC inhibitors. These compounds showed excellent inhibition activity in comparison with the parent compound (kanamycin A) with less toxicity. A library of monosaccharide esters with varying carbon chain lengths (acetyl (C2) to hexadecyl (C16)) were synthesized, characterized, and tested for bioactivity. Carbohydrate esters showed low toxicity while remaining active against bacteria and fungi. The compound 6-O-tetradecanoyl-D-mannopyranose (MAN014), a mannose ester with a fourteen-carbon chain, showed the greatest antibacterial and antifungal properties. A mode of action study was tested against Staphylococcus aureus (bacteria) and Fusarium graminearum (fungus) and found the compound perturbed the cell membrum.

Acquired cellular resistance to traditional chemotherapeutics is a common obstacle in the treatment of most cancer cell types. This resistance occurs as a result of changes in the underlying molecular mechanisms of disease progression. The development of novel chemotherapeutic approaches designed to enhance the efficacy of protypical anti-cancer drugs is important in order to overcome this issue. Such approaches will aid in understanding the biomolecular phenomena responsible for drug resistance and disease progression. Combining signaling pathway inhibitors has become an effective strategy for enhancing tumor cell death by targeting multiple pathways known to regulate cell survival. Pemetrexed, an FDA-approved anti-folate drug, targets thymidylate synthase (TS) and a secondary folate-dependent enzyme, 5’ aminoimidazole-carboximide ribonucleotide formyltransferase (AICART); both important for DNA synthesis. Studies performed by our collaborator demonstrated that TS inhibition causes intracellular accumulation of ZMP+ and activation of AMPK which is known to induce autophagy in mammalian cells. Previous studies from our lab and others showed that sorafenib, a multi-kinase inhibitor of Raf-1 and class III receptor tyrosine kinases, was able to induce a cytotoxic form of autophagy in a variety of tumor cell types. Combination treatment using pemetrexed and sorafenib in these cancer cells resulted in an enhancement of autophagy and cell lethality beyond that of individual drugs alone. Inhibition of autophagy suppressed the toxic interactions of these drugs in all cell types examined. Pemetrexed/sorafenib cotherapy also proved to be an effective treatment for triple negative breast cancer cells having advanced to a stage of estrogen independence. Fulvestrant-resistant MCF7 cells were more sensitive to the drug combination than parental, estrogen-dependent MCF7 cells. Breast cancer cells cotreated with pemetrexed and sorafenib exhibited enhanced MEK/ERK signaling, Src activation that was dependent on platelet-derived growth factor β (PDGFRβ) downregulation, elevated protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) activity, and increased de novo ceramide synthesis. Studies using a mouse model of experimentally-induced breast cancer validated drug combination effectiveness through inhibition of tumor growth, while no deleterious effects on normal tissues were observed. The data presented demonstrates that pemetrexed/sorafenib cotreatment augments chemosensitivity in both in vitro and in vivo systems. Based upon these findings, a Phase I clinical trial involving pemetrexed and sorafenib in breast cancer patients with solid, recurrent tumors was begun in 2011. In conclusion, this work strongly supports a promising therapeutic utility for the pemetrexed/sorafenib combination in treatment of various cancer cell types.