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Body fluid identification is an important aspect of forensic work, as it can help identify a suspect and provide information about the kind of criminal activity that took place. Blood is one of the most commonly found body fluids at a crime scene. While visually it is easily distinguishable from other fluids, an accurate method is needed to differentiate between peripheral blood and menstrual blood. This differentiation could provide critical evidence regarding consent in an alleged sexual assault. The presence of peripheral blood indicates a traumatic cause, whereas menstrual blood points towards a natural bleeding cause. Accurate detection of menstrual blood can also help with the reconstruction or corroboration of events. Menstruation is the shedding of the internal lining of the uterus that occurs on a monthly basis in women of a reproductive age group. Menstrual blood is different in composition from the peripheral blood flowing through arteries and veins. It consists of a mixture of vaginal and cervical secretions, epithelial cells, debris from the endometrial lining, blood and fibrinolytic products. The fibrinolytic products are associated with the prevention of blood clot formation. Several methods have been researched and used for the detection of menstrual blood. These include microscopy, identification of the lactate dehydrogenase isoenzyme, detection of fibrinolytic products, and profiling of messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) and micro RNA (miRNA). Even though menstrual blood is encountered at crime scenes, a reliable routine procedure for its identification has not yet been incorporated in forensic laboratories. In this study, four methods of detection of menstrual blood were evaluated and compared with each other regarding efficacy. These methods are the LGC ParaDNA® Body Fluid ID Test, SERATEC® PMB Test, DIMERTEST® Latex Assay and Microscopic methods using Lugol’s Iodine and Dane’s staining method. The LGC ParaDNA® Body Fluid ID Test identifies menstrual blood by detecting the mRNA marker MMP10. The SERATEC® PMB Test and DIMERTEST® Latex Assay both detect D-dimers present in menstrual blood. In addition, the SERATEC® PMB Test can detect the presence of peripheral blood. Microscopic identification is performed by identifying vaginal epithelial cells present in the menstrual blood. Menstrual blood samples were self-collected from six anonymous donors on three consecutive days of menses on either a cotton swatch or a cotton swab. Samples from the earliest day were tested in triplicate using the first three methods. For the fourth method, Lugol’s Iodine and Dane’s stain were applied to various cell types to test the utility of the stains. The ParaDNA® Body Fluid ID Test, SERATEC® PMB test and the DIMERTEST® Latex Assay all show promise for the detection of menstrual blood in forensic samples. None of the tests showed a cross reactivity to the other body fluids tested, but some ParaDNA® and DIMERTEST® samples yielded a false negative result for menstrual blood or peripheral blood. The SERATEC® PMB Test outperformed the other methods, both in sensitivity and accuracy. It was accurate for all samples, with a short run time and minimal training required. Microscopic detection of menstrual blood via detection of vaginal epithelial cells could not be accurately investigated as Dane’s staining method could not be reproduced and the presence of blood obscured the results for the Lugol’s method.

Biological material is a common type of evidence found at a crime scene, and body fluid identification is an essential process in crime scene investigation. One of the most common types of body fluids found is blood. After a stain has been presumptively identified as blood through the use of a colorimetric chemical test, additional testing may be necessary to better characterize the stain. SERATEC PMB Test is a relatively new lateral flow immunochromatographic assay that targets human hemoglobin and D-dimer simultaneously in order to distinguish peripheral blood and menstrual blood at the same time. Elevated levels of D-dimer, a fibrin degradation product, are found in menstrual blood, thrombosis formation and as part of the postmortem process. A previous study investigated levels of D-dimer in menstrual, peripheral and postmortem blood using the SERATEC PMB Test. In this study, all postmortem blood samples showed positive results for both hemoglobin and D-dimer; all peripheral bloodstain samples from living individuals showed positive results for hemoglobin detection, and negative results for D-dimer detection; and most menstrual bloodstain samples showed positive D-dimer results. The results suggest that this assay could be considered a presumptive test for both postmortem blood and menstrual blood. However, as D-dimer concentrations vary between individuals, additional testing is necessary to conclusively distinguish postmortem blood, menstrual blood and peripheral blood from living individuals with especially high D-dimer levels.

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COLLAGEN IN SITU GROWN CALCIUM PHOSPHATE SCAFFOLDS FOR OSTEOGENIC DIFFERENTIATION OF WHARTON&rsquo / S JELLY AND MENSTRUAL BLOOD STEM CELLS Karadas, &Ouml / zge M.Sc., Department of Biotechnology Supervisor : Prof. Dr. Vasif Hasirci Co-Supervisor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gamze Torun K&ouml / se February 2011, 91 pages The importance of developing new techniques for the treatment of bone and joint diseases is increasing continuosly together with the increase of human population and the average life span. Especially bone fractures as a result of osteoporosis are often seen in humans older than 50 years old. The expenses of bone and joint disease operations are very high and the duration of recovery is long. Because of these reasons World Health Organization, The United Nations and 37 countries announced that the years 2000-2010 is the Bone and Joint Decade. Tissue engineering is an alternative approach to clinically applied methods. In this study collagen scaffolds crosslinked with genipin, to improve the stability of foams in culture media, were prepared by lyophilization. To mimic the natural bone structure calcium phosphate mineral phase in the foam was formed by wet chemical precipitation. Collagen concentration (0.75% and 1%, w/v), freezing temperature (-20 oC and -80 oC) of the collagen solution before lyophilization and immersion duration (2x4 h and 2x48 h) of the foams in calcium and phosphate solutions for wet chemical precipitation were changed as process v parameters of foam production. Pore size distribution and porosity analysis as well as compression test were performed for characterization of the scaffolds. The foam with 1% w/v collagen concentration, frozen at -20 oC before lyophilization and immersed for 2x4 h in calcium and phosphate solution was chosen for in vitro cell culture studies. The defined foam had 70% porosity and pore sizes varying between 50 and 200 &mu / m. The elastic modulus and compressive strength of the foam was calculated as 127.1 kPa and 234.5 kPa, respectively. Stem cells isolated from Wharton&rsquo / s jelly (WJ) and menstrual blood (MB) were seeded to foams to compare their osteogenic differentiation. Both cells are isolated from discarded tissues and used in this study as an alternative to the commonly used cells which are isolated by invasive techniques such as bone marrow stem cells. Cells were seeded to collagen foams with and without calcium phosphate (CaP). It was observed that WJ cells proliferated during 21 days on collagen foams without CaP, but MB cell number decreased after day 14. Collagen foams with CaP supported the alkaline phosphate (ALP) activity compared to tissue culture polystyrene (TCPS) and foams without CaP. Contrarily lower cell numbers achieved on CaP containing collagen foams, possibly because of the calcium and phosphate concentration changes in the medium and as the result of osteogenic differentiation. ALP activity of both cell types increased almost 10 times and specific ALP activity (activity per cell) increased 40 times and 150 times for WJ and MB cells, respectively on the CaP containing foams compared to TCPS. Therefore, in this study it was shown that in situ CaP formed collagen foams induce osteogenic differentiation of WJ and MB cells, and these cells isolated from discarded tissues can be used as alternative cell sources in bone tissue engineering applications.

Blood symbolism is a phenomenon that is commonly processed in literature, especially within the fantasy genre. Siri Pettersen’s fantasy novel Kraften (2016) does not make an exception from this tradition. In this essay I present the different levels of blood symbolism and textual aesthetics within Kraften while focusing on four perspectives: violence, sexual acts, bodily functions and rituals. As a result, I find that blood symbolism has a profound connection to Pettersen’s characters and fantasy universe as a whole; that the particular force affecting the earth can represent the Norse giant Ymir’s symbolic blood. I also find that the contemporary view of blood – menstrual or other – is impacted by ancient cultural traditions and beliefs among the very first humans walking the earth. And finally, that blood symbolism operates very much like the first law of thermodynamics in fantasy literature: it cannot disappear or be destroyed, only be recreated into new forms.

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