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It is ideal to theoretically predict the activity of a catalyst. It has been recognized that not only the type of metal, but also its atomic size plays an important role in catalysis. In the past, atomic clusters have been created by sputtering from a sacrificial metal plate and then using a mass selector to choose cluster sizes from 1-233 atoms of gold. This approach has practical limitations. In this thesis, I describe a procedure by which atomic clusters of gold containing 1-8 atoms are deposited in polyaniline as an isolation matrix. My atomic deposition follows a cyclic pathway. Atomic clusters of palladium and atomic alloys of gold and palladium are also deposited in polyaniline using the same process. It is to show that this method will also work for other metals. These composite materials are characterized, and the catalytic activity for alcohol oxidation is evaluated. This thesis is divided into seven chapters. The first chapter discusses the chemistry of polyaniline for using gold and palladium as catalysts. The technique developed to deposit the atomic clusters is discussed in the second chapter. This technique deposits one atom of metal per imine site on polyaniline, per cycle. The cycle is repeated n-times until a cluster of specified size, Mn, and composition has been synthesized. It is known that polyaniline plays an important role in stabilization of the formed clusters which prevents their aggregation. The optimization of this technique is the topic of the third chapter along with the description of how these composite films are produced. To end this chapter, the composite films are characterized by cyclic voltammetry, Kelvin probe, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. In chapters 4 and 5, the catalytic activity of the polyaniline/gold composites for the oxidation of alcohols in alkaline media using cyclic voltammetry is evaluated. In chapter 4, the correlation of the electrochemical activity for the oxidation of n-PrOH with the odd-even pattern from the calculated HOMO-LUMO gap energies for the same size clusters is shown. It is shown that the infrared spectrum of polyaniline with different sizes of atomic gold clusters also follows the odd-even pattern. Chapter 5 expands on the discussion of the catalytic oxidation of alcohols. The oxidation of methanol, ethanol, propanol, and butanol is surveyed. The peak currents are again dominated by the odd-even pattern. In chapter 6, the versatility of the atomic deposition cycle is shown by depositing atomic palladium clusters. The peak currents for the oxidation of n-PrOH by these palladium composite films again follows the predicted pattern of the calculated HOMO-LUMO gap energies for atomic palladium clusters. This chapter also explores bimetallic atomic clusters of gold and palladium. The results indicate that the catalytic activity depends on the orientation of the cluster in the polyaniline matrix. Chapter 7 discusses the oxidation of methanol, ethanol, and isopropanol on AunPd1 bimetallic atomic clusters. The addition of palladium in the cluster increases the peak current densities for the oxidation of both alcohols except for the most stable of the atomic gold clusters, while it inactivated the electrodes for isopropanol. The possible future work for this project is discussed in chapter 8. Overall, this thesis has developed a novel and unique technique for depositing atomic metal clusters into a polyaniline matrix. The technique is versatile enough to deposit atomic metal clusters other than gold, as shown by creating atomic palladium clusters and atomic bimetallic clusters of gold and palladium. This is extremely useful, since this single technique can produce many different types of atomic catalysts. The composite materials have been shown to be catalytically active for the oxidation of alcohols in alkaline media. This indicates a significant improvement to conserve precious metals while still retaining a high catalytic activity.

This thesis presents electronic structure calculations on problems related to the bonding in inorganic coordination compounds and clusters. A wide range of molecules with the ability to exist in different structural forms or electronic states has been selected and density functional theory is systematically applied in order to gain detailed insight into their characteristics and reactivity at the electronic level. First, we address the question of redox non-innocent behaviour of bipyridine in a series of 1st row transition metal complexes. Complexes of the type [M(2,2'-bipyridine)(mes)₂]⁰ (M = Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni; mes = 2,4,6-Me₃C6H₂) and their one-electron reduced forms have been explored. The results clearly show that the anions are best described as complexes of the monoanionic bipyridine radical (S_bpy = 1/2), giving a rationale for the observed structural changes within the ligand. Likewise, we have identified dianionic bipyridine in both the complexes [Zn2(4,4'-bpy)(mes)₄]²⁻ and [Fe(2,2'-bpy)₂]²⁻. In no case have we found evidence for significant metal-to-ligand backbonding. The subject of redox-noninnocence is further revisited in a comparative study of the two complexes [M(o-Clpap)₃] (M = Cr, Mo; o-Clpap = 2-[(2-chloro-phenyl)azo]-pyridine), and their associated electron transfer series. The results indicate that all electron transfer processes are primarily ligand-based, although in the case of the Mo analogue these are coupled to substantial electron density changes at the metal. The ability of pap to form radical anions finds a contrasting case in the di- nuclear Rh complex [Rh₂(μ-p-Clpap)₂ (cod)Cl₂], where the two ligand bridges act as acceptors of strong dπ∗ backbonding from a formally Rh^–I centre. We then direct our attention to the endohedral Zintl clusters [Fe@Ge₁₀]³⁻ and [Mn@Pb₁₂]³⁻, which reveal peculiar topologies. We have probed the electronic factors that influence their geometric preferences, and propose a model based on the shift of electron density from the endo- hedral metal to the cage to account for the observed geometries. Subsequently, we reassess the electronic structure of the xenophilic clusters Mn₂(thf)₄(Fe(CO)₄)₂ and [Mn(Mn(thf)₂)₃(Mn(CO)₄)₃]^–. We conclude that these are best viewed as exchange coupled Mn^II centres bridged by closed- shell carbonylate fragments. In the closing chapter the reduction of NO₂^– to NO by the complex [Cu(tct)(NO₂)]⁺ (tct = cis,cis-1,3,5-tris(cinnamylideneamino)cyclohexane) is studied, a process that mimics the enzyme-catalysed reaction. Two viable pathways for the reaction have been traced and key inter-mediates identified. Both direct release of NO or via decomposition of a Cu-NO complex are kinetically and thermodynamically feasible.

The group 14 Zintl clusters [E₉]⁴⁻ (E = Ge, Sn, Pb) have been reacted with organometallic reagents in solution in the presence of alkali metal cation sequestering agents. The synthesis, characterisation and reactivity studies of the resultant complexes are reported herein. These negatively charged clusters reductively cleave one of the M–C bonds in the group 12 homoleptic organometallic reagents MR₂ (M = Zn, Cd; R = Ph, mes, ⁱPr) to yield η⁴-coordinated functionalised clusters closo-[E₉MR]³⁻. They can also activate both of the M–C bonds in Cd(mes)₂ to form metal-bridged dimers [Ge₉CdGe₉]⁶⁻ and [Pb₉CdCdPb₉]⁶⁻. Investigating the reactivity of the functionalised cluster [E₉CdPh]³⁻ (E = Sn, Pb) towards HSn(ⁿBu)₃ results in the synthesis of the novel closo-clusters [E₉CdSn(ⁿBu)₃]³⁻. The reaction of K₄Ge₉ with the heteroleptic organometallic reagent Fe(COT)(CO)₃ yields the metalated cluster anion [Ge₈Fe(CO)₃]³⁻, in which the nuclearity of the Zintl anion is altered upon coordination of the [Fe(CO)₃] moiety. Two side products have also been isolated as [K(2,2,2-crypt)]⁺ salts of [Fe(η³-C₈H₈)(CO)₃]⁻ and [Fe₂(η³, η′³-C<sub<16</sub<H₁₆)(CO)₆]²⁻. In the presence of highly reduced Zintl anions, all the M–C bonds in homoleptic mid-row transition metal organometallic reagents can also be cleaved. These ‘naked’ metal atoms have templated the formation of the endohedral clusters [Fe@Ge₁₀]³⁻, [Fe@Sn₁₀]³⁻ and [Mn@Pb₁₂]³⁻. These clusters adopt very different geometries and the electronic origin of their structures has been investigated in-depth by DFT calculations. Structural characterisation of some side products is also reported for: [E₉(mes)]³⁻ (E = Ge, Sn) and [Ge₉Mn(mes)]³⁻.

Clusters sub-nanométricos de metais de transição (TM) têm atraído grande atenção devido às suas propriedades físicas e químicas singulares, muito diferentes dos homólogos na fase bulk. Estas propriedades incomuns podem variar de acordo com o tamanho, a composição e o estado de carga para clusters em fase gasosa. Uma compreensão aprofundada da evolução das propriedades em função de tais parâmetros é um pré-requisito necessário para potencializar diversas aplicações, desde catálise até armazenamento magnético, bem como para responder questões fundamentais relacionadas com a estabilidade intrínseca desses sistemas. Porém, esse entendimento ainda não é satisfatório. Neste projeto, usando cálculos de primeiros princípios baseados na teoria do funcional da densidade dentro da aproximação de gradiente generalizado na formulação proposta por Perdew-Burke-Ernzerhoff, investigamos as estruturas atômicas, as propriedades eletrônicas e a estabilidade de todos os TM (30 elementos) clusters unários em função do tamanho (2 &ndash; 15 átomos). Para estudar a influência da carga, consideramos clusters de Cun e Ptn (n = 2 &ndash; 14) nos estados catiônico, neutro e aniônico, enquanto os efeitos de composição foram considerados para clusters bimetálicos de PtnCum com m = 2,3, &middot; &middot; &middot; ,14 e n = 0,1, &middot; &middot; &middot ;,m. Nossos resultados sugerem que: (i) Os mecanismos de estabilização para os TM clusters unários baseiam-se na natureza das ligações químicas, em que a ocupação dos orbitais d ligantes ou antiligantes e a hibridização s &ndash; d afetam fortemente as propriedades. Por exemplo, a maioria dos TM clusters mágicos são acompanhados por picos de hibridização s &ndash; d e momentos de dipolo elétrico nulos.(ii) Diferentes parâmetros afetam as estruturas de TM clusters nesse regime de tamanho, tais como, propriedades do átomo livre, interações magnéticas de troca e efeitos relativísticos. (iii) As propriedades são muito susceptíveis ao estado de carga; em particular, as estruturas tendem a diminuir a coordenação atômica quando um elétron é adicionado ao sistema, o que afeta fortemente a transição 2D-3D. (iv) Energia de excesso negativa foi obtida para a maioria dos Pt&ndash;Cu clusters, o que fornece uma forte evidência para a formação de clusters bimetálicos. Além disso, nossas análises sugerem que a formação de estruturas tipo caroço(Cu)-casca(Pt) começa neste regime de tamanho, afim de liberar energia de tensão. (v) O centro de gravidade dos estados d ocupados da liga Pt&ndash;Cu varia com a composição, e se aproxima do orbital mais alto ocupado para composições em torno de 50%-50%. Em particular, nossos cálculos sugerem um aumento na energia de adsorção de CO e NO sobre Pt7Cu6 em comparação com os clusters unários de Pt13 e Cu13. Consequentemente, estes resultados constituem uma base para compreender a formação de partículas maiores bem como para investigar sistemas mais complexos e realistas, como reações químicas de sistemas moleculares adsorvidos sobre TM clusters estabilizados por ligantes ou suportados. / Sub-nanometre sized transition metal (TM) clusters have attracted great attention due to their unique physical and chemical properties, very different from the bulk counterparts. These unusual properties can vary with size, composition and state of charge for gas-phase clusters. An in-depth understanding of the properties evolution in function of such parameters is a necessary prerequisite to leverage diverse applications, from catalysis to magnetic storage, as well as to answer fundamental questions related with the intrinsic stability of these systems. However, this understanding is not yet satisfactory. In this project, using first-principles calculations based on density functional theory within the generalized gradient approximation in the formulation proposed by Perdew-Burke-Ernzerhoff, we investigate the atomic structures, electronic properties and stability of all TM (30 elements) unary clusters in function of size (2 &ndash; 15 atoms). To study the influence of the charge we considered Cun and Ptn (n = 2 &ndash; 14) clusters in the cationic, neutral and anionic states, while compositional effects were considered for bimetallic PtnCum&ndash;n clusters with m = 2,3, &middot; &middot; &middot; ,14 and n = 0,1, &middot; &middot; &middot; ,m. Our results suggest that: (i) The stabilization mechanisms for unary clusters are based on the nature of chemical bondings, on which the occupation of the bonding or antibonding d orbitals and the s &ndash; d hybridization strongly affect the properties. For example, most magic TM clusters are accompanied by peaks in s &ndash; d hybridization and null electric dipole moments.(ii) Different parameters affect TM cluster structures in that size regime, such as, free-atom properties, magnetic exchange interactions and relativistic effects. (iii) The properties are very susceptible to the charge state; in particular, the structures tend to decrease the atomic coordination when one electron is added to the system, which strongly affects the 2D-3D transition. (iv) Negative excess energy was obtained for the most PtCu clusters, which provides a strong evidence for the formation of these bimetallic clusters. Moreover, our analyzes suggest that the formation of core(Cu)-shell(Pt) like structures starts at this size regime, in order to release strain energy. (v) The center of gravity of the occupied d states of the Pt&ndash;Cu alloy vary with composition and approaches to the highest occupied molecular orbital for compositions around 50%-50%. In particular, our calculations suggest an increase in the adsorption energy of CO and NO on Pt7Cu6 in comparison with Pt13 and Cu13 unary clusters. Thus, these results form a basis to understand the formation of greater particles as well as to investigate more complex and realistic systems, such as chemical reactions of molecular systems adsorbed on ligand stabilized or supported TM clusters.

From catalytic studies in surface science, it has been shown that the catalytic activity is dependent on the type of metal facet used. Nanocrystals of different shapes have different facets. This raises the possibility that the use of metal nanoparticles of different shapes could catalyze different reactions with different efficiencies. The catalytic activity is found to correlate with the fraction of surface atoms located on the corners and edges of the tetrahedral, cubic, and spherical platinum nanoparticles. It is observed that for nanoparticles of comparable size, the tetrahedral nanoparticles have the highest fraction of surface atoms located on the corners and edges and also have the lowest activation energy, making them the most catalytically active. Nanoparticles have a high surface-to-volume ratio, which makes them attractive to use compared to bulk catalytic materials. However, their surface atoms are also very active due to their high surface energy. As a result, it is possible that the surface atoms are so active that their size and shape could change during the course of their catalytic function. It is found that dissolution of corner and edge atoms occurs for both the tetrahedral and cubic platinum nanoparticles during the full course of the mild electron transfer reaction and that there is a corresponding change in the activation energy in which both kinds of nanoparticles strive to behave like spherical nanoparticles. When spherical palladium nanoparticles are used as catalysts for the Suzuki reaction, it is found that the nanoparticles grow larger after the first cycle of the reaction due to the Ostwald ripening process since it is a relatively harsh reaction due to the need to reflux the reaction mixture for 12 hours at 100 oC. When the tetrahedral Pt nanoparticles are used to catalyze this reaction, the tetrahedral nanoparticles transform to spherical ones, which grow larger during the second cycle. In addition, studies on the effect of the individual reactant have also provided clues to the surface catalytic process that is taking place. In the case of the electron transfer reaction, the surface catalytic process involves the thiosulfate ions binding to the nanoparticle surface and reacting with the hexacyanoferrate (III) ions in solution. In the case of the Suzuki reaction, the surface catalytic mechanism of the Suzuki reaction involves the phenylboronic acid binding to the nanoparticle surface and reacting with iodobenzene via collisional processes.

Gas phase metal-containing complexes provide suitable systems in which to study fundamental binding motifs between a metal ion and molecules in the absence of any solvent, support or competing charge effects. In this thesis, metal-containing species are explored experimentally using infrared resonance enhanced photodissociation (IR-REPD) spectroscopy and velocity map imaging (VMI). The experimental results are further interpreted with the aid of spectral simulations based on density functional theory (DFT). These are the first studies reported using a newly built IR-REPD spectrometer equipped with a purpose-built laser ablation source to allow for the study of single metal ion-molecule complexes. The laser ablation source is shown to efficiently produce various complexes including Rh⁺(CO₂)_n, VO₂⁺(N₂O)_n and Au⁺(CH₄)_n and the IR-REPD spectrometer has been characterised against a well-studied system of V⁺(CO₂)_n complexes. In order to record the IR-REPD spectra for small metal ion-molecule complexes, an argon atom is employed as the inert messenger. A combined IR-REPD spectroscopy and DFT investigation of M⁺(CO₂)_n complexes (where M = Co⁺, Rh⁺ and Ir⁺) reveals a common [M⁺(CO₂)₂] core structure for all three considered metal ions. Additional ligands, which are not directly bound to the central metal ion, experience lower perturbation as evident in the reduced blue-shift for the ligand in the outer coordination shells. A further IR-REPD/DFT study involving CO₂ complexation around NbO₂⁺ and TaO₂⁺ ions reveals a strongly-bound core of four CO₂ ligands around the MO₂⁺ ion (M = Nb, Ta). A significant increase in the intermolecular bond distances for the second coordination sphere ligands coincides with a decrease in the calculated binding energies. Velocity map imaging is employed to explore the rich photodissociation dynamics of VO in the vicinity of C⁴Σ- - X⁴Σ-(v',0) vibronic transitions in VO. The final quantum state distribution was observed to be strongly dependent on the intermediate vibronic state of VO via which the dissociation threshold is reached. This work provides a refined value for the VO dissociation energy of D₀(VO) = 53190 ± 261 cm^-1 in excellent agreement with available literature.

Clusters sub-nanométricos de metais de transição (TM) têm atraído grande atenção devido às suas propriedades físicas e químicas singulares, muito diferentes dos homólogos na fase bulk. Estas propriedades incomuns podem variar de acordo com o tamanho, a composição e o estado de carga para clusters em fase gasosa. Uma compreensão aprofundada da evolução das propriedades em função de tais parâmetros é um pré-requisito necessário para potencializar diversas aplicações, desde catálise até armazenamento magnético, bem como para responder questões fundamentais relacionadas com a estabilidade intrínseca desses sistemas. Porém, esse entendimento ainda não é satisfatório. Neste projeto, usando cálculos de primeiros princípios baseados na teoria do funcional da densidade dentro da aproximação de gradiente generalizado na formulação proposta por Perdew-Burke-Ernzerhoff, investigamos as estruturas atômicas, as propriedades eletrônicas e a estabilidade de todos os TM (30 elementos) clusters unários em função do tamanho (2 &ndash; 15 átomos). Para estudar a influência da carga, consideramos clusters de Cun e Ptn (n = 2 &ndash; 14) nos estados catiônico, neutro e aniônico, enquanto os efeitos de composição foram considerados para clusters bimetálicos de PtnCum com m = 2,3, &middot; &middot; &middot; ,14 e n = 0,1, &middot; &middot; &middot ;,m. Nossos resultados sugerem que: (i) Os mecanismos de estabilização para os TM clusters unários baseiam-se na natureza das ligações químicas, em que a ocupação dos orbitais d ligantes ou antiligantes e a hibridização s &ndash; d afetam fortemente as propriedades. Por exemplo, a maioria dos TM clusters mágicos são acompanhados por picos de hibridização s &ndash; d e momentos de dipolo elétrico nulos.(ii) Diferentes parâmetros afetam as estruturas de TM clusters nesse regime de tamanho, tais como, propriedades do átomo livre, interações magnéticas de troca e efeitos relativísticos. (iii) As propriedades são muito susceptíveis ao estado de carga; em particular, as estruturas tendem a diminuir a coordenação atômica quando um elétron é adicionado ao sistema, o que afeta fortemente a transição 2D-3D. (iv) Energia de excesso negativa foi obtida para a maioria dos Pt&ndash;Cu clusters, o que fornece uma forte evidência para a formação de clusters bimetálicos. Além disso, nossas análises sugerem que a formação de estruturas tipo caroço(Cu)-casca(Pt) começa neste regime de tamanho, afim de liberar energia de tensão. (v) O centro de gravidade dos estados d ocupados da liga Pt&ndash;Cu varia com a composição, e se aproxima do orbital mais alto ocupado para composições em torno de 50%-50%. Em particular, nossos cálculos sugerem um aumento na energia de adsorção de CO e NO sobre Pt7Cu6 em comparação com os clusters unários de Pt13 e Cu13. Consequentemente, estes resultados constituem uma base para compreender a formação de partículas maiores bem como para investigar sistemas mais complexos e realistas, como reações químicas de sistemas moleculares adsorvidos sobre TM clusters estabilizados por ligantes ou suportados. / Sub-nanometre sized transition metal (TM) clusters have attracted great attention due to their unique physical and chemical properties, very different from the bulk counterparts. These unusual properties can vary with size, composition and state of charge for gas-phase clusters. An in-depth understanding of the properties evolution in function of such parameters is a necessary prerequisite to leverage diverse applications, from catalysis to magnetic storage, as well as to answer fundamental questions related with the intrinsic stability of these systems. However, this understanding is not yet satisfactory. In this project, using first-principles calculations based on density functional theory within the generalized gradient approximation in the formulation proposed by Perdew-Burke-Ernzerhoff, we investigate the atomic structures, electronic properties and stability of all TM (30 elements) unary clusters in function of size (2 &ndash; 15 atoms). To study the influence of the charge we considered Cun and Ptn (n = 2 &ndash; 14) clusters in the cationic, neutral and anionic states, while compositional effects were considered for bimetallic PtnCum&ndash;n clusters with m = 2,3, &middot; &middot; &middot; ,14 and n = 0,1, &middot; &middot; &middot; ,m. Our results suggest that: (i) The stabilization mechanisms for unary clusters are based on the nature of chemical bondings, on which the occupation of the bonding or antibonding d orbitals and the s &ndash; d hybridization strongly affect the properties. For example, most magic TM clusters are accompanied by peaks in s &ndash; d hybridization and null electric dipole moments.(ii) Different parameters affect TM cluster structures in that size regime, such as, free-atom properties, magnetic exchange interactions and relativistic effects. (iii) The properties are very susceptible to the charge state; in particular, the structures tend to decrease the atomic coordination when one electron is added to the system, which strongly affects the 2D-3D transition. (iv) Negative excess energy was obtained for the most PtCu clusters, which provides a strong evidence for the formation of these bimetallic clusters. Moreover, our analyzes suggest that the formation of core(Cu)-shell(Pt) like structures starts at this size regime, in order to release strain energy. (v) The center of gravity of the occupied d states of the Pt&ndash;Cu alloy vary with composition and approaches to the highest occupied molecular orbital for compositions around 50%-50%. In particular, our calculations suggest an increase in the adsorption energy of CO and NO on Pt7Cu6 in comparison with Pt13 and Cu13 unary clusters. Thus, these results form a basis to understand the formation of greater particles as well as to investigate more complex and realistic systems, such as chemical reactions of molecular systems adsorbed on ligand stabilized or supported TM clusters.

Treatment of 4,5 bis-(diphenylphosphino)-cyclopenten-1,3 dione with thiophene carboxyaldehyde in dichloromethane, in the presence of molecular sieves results in a new heterocyclic compound, 2-(2-thienylidene)-4,5-bis(diphenylphosphino)-4-cyclopenten-1,3-dione (ligand), with a high yield. This product was characterized by using both IR and NMR spectroscopic techniques and the solid-state structure of the ligand was determined using X-ray crystallography. When the ligand was treated with the solvent stabilized intermediate of ReBr(CO)5 with THF, a monomeric metal complex, fac-BrRe(CO)3[2-(2-thienylidene)-4,5-bis(diphenylphosphino)-4-cyclopenten-1,3-dione] was the result. The solid-state structure of the monomeric metal complex was determined using X-ray crystallography. Photolysis and thermolysis studies of the complex will be further explored.

No description available.