Leishmaniose é uma zoonose desenvolvida por protozoários do gênero Leishmania. A doença se manifesta sob a forma visceral e cutânea cujo tratamento apresenta diversas limitações como alto custo, elevada toxicidade dos fármacos e altos índices de recidiva. A leishmaniose cutânea abrange lesões destrutivas e ulceradas que podem evoluir para condições mais graves culminando em óbito dos hospedeiros acometidos. Tratamentos alternativos tem sido implementados com a finalidade de proporcionar acessibilidade financeira e menores efeitos colaterais aos pacientes. A terapia fotodinâmica se insere nesse contexto devido à praticidade, custo reduzido, mínima toxicidade e sem relatos de resistência descritos na literatura. O objetivo desse trabalho foi avaliar os efeitos da terapia fotodinâmica em leishmaniose cutânea induzida em camundongos BALB/c infectados com leishmaniose cutânea. A otimização da PDT também foi avaliada pela administração de doadores de óxido nítrico (S-nitroso-MSA) encapsulados em nanopartículas de quitosana (CSNPs), já que esse composto é altamente reativo e potencialmente tóxico para o parasito. Camundongos BALB/c foram infectados no membro posterior esquerdo com 1.106 promastigotas de Leishmania (L) amazonensis que expressam o gene da luciferase e acompanhados por 4 semanas até o surgimento da lesão. Após esse período, os animais foram distribuídos em 6 grupos (n=4): Controle (não tratado), PDT1 (submetidos à uma sessão de PDT), PDT2 (duas sessões ), PDT1NPNO e PDT2NPNO (uma sessão e duas sessões de PDT em associação com S-nitroso-MSACPNPS, respectivamente), e NPNO (somente S-nitroso-MSA-CP NPS). A segunda sessão foi realizada 24 h após a primeira. A PDT foi efetuada usando um diodo emissor de luz (LED, λ=660 ± 22 nm) e azul de metileno (100 μM), com densidade de energia de 150 J/cm2. O progresso da doença foi avaliado por meio do tamanho da lesão e escala de dor utilizando um paquímetro e filamentos von Frey, respectivamente. A carga parasitária foi quantificada por intermédio do bioimageamento nas primeiras 96 h após o tratamento e nas 4 semanas seguintes. Os resultados obtidos demonstraram redução na carga parasitária durante o período experimental, com exceção do grupo PDT1NPNO. Houve redução parasitária significante em 72 h e 96 h para os grupos PDT2, PDT2NPNO e NPNO. A maior redução da lesão foi observada para o grupo PDT2 bem como menor sensibilidade ao estímulo doloroso. Nossos resultados indicam efeitos benéficos da PDT em duas sessões, sugerindo que pode ter ocorrido modulação do processo inflamatório. Entretanto, o uso das nanopartículas nas condições utilizadas nesse experimento não foi capaz de otimizar a eficiência da PDT nos animais infectados com Leishmania (L) amazonensis. / Leishmaniasis is a zoonotic disease developed by protozoa of genus leishmania. There are two dominant forms including visceral and cutaneous manifestations in which treatments are limited because of price, toxicity and resistance. Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) promotes destructive and ulcerated lesions that might intensify to a more severe symptom that could lead to patient death. Alternative treatments have been studied to promote reduction of side effects, cost and higher efficacy for the hosts. Photodynamic therapy has been introduced once the technic is practical, less expensive and with no resistance described in literature. Additionally, several studies indicate that the administration of exogenous NO donors represents an interesting strategy against cutaneous leishmaniasis. The aim of this work was to evaluate the effects of photodynamic therapy on cutaneous leishmaniasis in BALB/c mice. Besides, the optimization of PDT was evaluated through its association with encapsulated NO donors (S-nitroso-MSA) in chitosan nanoparticles (CSNPs) on CL in BALB/c mice using real time bioluminescence. In addition, we monitored lesion size progression and hyperalgesia. Promastigotes of L. (L) amazonensis transgenic line expressing luciferase were used. BALB/c mice were infected in the left footpad with 1.106 promastigotes. After 4 weeks, mice were randomly assigned to 6 experimental groups (n=4): Control (non-treated), PDT1 (submitted to one PDT session) PDT2 (submitted to two PDT sessions), (PDT1NPNO and PDT2NPNO (submitted to one and two PDT sessions following S-nitroso-MSA-CSNPs, respectively) and NPNO (treated only with S-nitroso-MSA-CSNPs). The second PDT session was performed 24 h after the first. PDT was performed using a red LED (λ= 660±22 nm), MB (100 μM) and fluence of 150 J/cm2. Disease progression was evaluated once a week for 4 weeks by measuring lesion size with a caliper and hyperalgesia with von Frey filaments. Parasite burden was analyzed through luciferase detection by bioimaging, every day, in the first 96 h and then for the next 4 weeks. Test groups presented significant reduction in parasite load compared to control during all experimental period except for PDT2NPNO. Our results indicate that two PDT sessions were more efficient suggesting a modulation of the inflammatory process. However, under these conditions, our results demonstrate that CSNPs were not able to enhance MB-mediated PDT efficiency on parasite burden on L. (L) amazonensis-induced CL in mice.

A capacitação é um pré-requisito fisiológico importante para que a célula espermática fertilize o oócito. O óxido nítrico (NO) é sintetizado in vivo durante a conversão da L-arginina em L-citrulina por reações oxidativas catalisadas pela enzima óxido nítrico sintase (NOS) desempenhando um papel importante na regulação da motilidade e na capacitação dos espermatozoides. Estudos indicam que o NO é capaz de regular a concentração da AMP cíclico e, por conseguinte, através da atividade da adenil ciclase, estimular a capacitação espermática em várias espécies. O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar a função do NO na capacitação de espermatozoides equinos criopreservados. Três ejaculados foram colhidos de três garanhões (n=9). O sêmen foi diluído em meio Botu-Crio&reg; na concentração final de 200×106 células/mL, envasado em palhetas de 0,5 mL e criopreservado usando um sistema automatizado. Para cada análise, foram descongeladas quatro palhetas da mesma partida e do mesmo garanhão em banho-maria a 37oC/30 s. e em seguida, o sêmen foi submetido à centrifugação em meio FIV. Posteriormente, o sêmen foi incubado neste mesmo meio na presença de L-arginina, com ou sem inibidor da enzima óxido nítrico sintase o (L-NAME), e com ou sem o removedor de NO (azul de metileno) nos tratamentos: 1) C= (FIV); 2) A= L-arginina (10 mM); 3) L = L-NAME (1 mM); 4) M = azul de metileno (100 mM); 5) AL = L-arginina (10 mM) + L-NAME (1 mM); 6) AM = L-arginina (10 mM) + azul de metileno (100 mM). As amostras foram incubadas a 38oC e 5 % de CO2. Após a incubação realizou-se a análise computadorizada da motilidade do espermatozoide e as análises por citometria de fluxo. Para a análise computadorizada da motilidade espermática foram avaliados os tempos de incubação de 0, 60, 120 e 300 min. e para as análises por citometria de fluxo os tempos de 60, 120 e 300 min. Para avaliar a integridade das membranas plasmática e acrossomal usou-se a associação FITC-PSA e IP. Para a detecção da fosforilação do aminoácido tirosina, usou-se o anticorpo antifosfotirosina conjugado a uma fluoresceína (DAF-2). A fim de dosar a quantidade de NO produzido pelo espermatozoide equino criopreservado foi utilizada a sonda DAF e para avaliar a peroxidação lipídica da membrana espermática utilizou a sonda C11-BODIPY. A sonda H33342 foi usada com a finalidade de evitar que partículas do mesmo tamanho e granulosidade da célula espermática fossem incluídas na contagem das análises por citometria de fluxo. Os dados foram analisados por meio da ANOVA e a comparação das médias, dentro de cada tempo, pelo teste de Tukey, com o nível de significância de 5 %, usando o software SAS. A remoção do NO do meio de cultura inibiu a motilidade das células espermáticas em todos os tempos de incubação. A motilidade total e motilidade progressiva foram reduzidas nos grupos M e AM. Os espermatozoides incubados com o removedor do NO apresentaram maior porcentagem de células com membrana plasmática e acrossomal íntegras nos 60 e 120 minutos de incubação (p<0,05). A reação acrossomal foi induzida nos tratamentos que receberam L-arginina (A; AL). Dentro de cada tratamento, a quantidade de NO produzido pelo espermatozoide, a fosforilação do aminoácido tirosina e a peroxidação lipídica não apresentaram diferenças entre os tempos (p>0,05). Foi verificada uma redução destas variáveis nos grupos M e AM (p<0,05). Contudo, a dose de 1 mM de L-NAME, não foi suficiente para inibir a NOS em espermatozoides criopreservados de equinos. A remoção do NO mantém a integridade das membranas plasmática e acrossomal, entretanto inibe totalmente a motilidade espermática, sugerindo um papel benéfico do NO endógeno na manutenção da motilidade dos espermatozoides equinos criopreservados. / Capacitation is an essential physiological prerequisite in order to sperm cell fertilize the oocyte. Nitric oxide (NO) is synthesized in vivo during the conversion of L-arginine in L-citruline by oxidative reactions catalyzed by nitric oxide synthase enzyme (NOS) and plays an important role in regulation of motility and in sperm capacitation. Studies indicated that NO is capable of regulating cAMP concentration and, therefore, by adenylyl cyclase, stimulate sperm capacitation in several species. The aim of this study was to evaluate the function of nitric oxide in cryopreserved equine sperm capacitation.Three ejaculates from three stallions were collected (n=9). Semen samples were diluted with Botu-Crio&reg; extender to a final concentration of 200×106 sperms/mL, and then packaged in 0.5mL straws and cryopreserved using an automated freezing system. For each analysis, four straws from the same batch and the same stallion were thawed in a water bath at 37oC/30 s. washed by centrifugation in FIV medium. Thereafter, samples were incubated in FIV medium in the presence of L-arginine, with or without the inhibitor of nitric oxide sinthase (L-NAME), and with or without the scavenger of NO (Methylene blue) in the following treatments: 1) C = Control (FIV); 2) A = L-arginine 10 mM; 3) L = L-NAME 1mM; 4) M = Methylene blue 100 mM; 5) AL = L-arginine (10 mM) + L-NAME (1 mM); 6) AM = L-argine (10 mM) + Methylene blue (100 mM). The treatments were incubated at 38oC and CO2 at 5 %. After incubation, the computer-assisted sperm motility (CASA) and flow cytometry analyses were performed. For CASA analysis, the incubation times of 0, 60, 120 e 300 min. were evaluated and for flow cytometry analyses times 60, 120 e 300 min. were evaluated. Plasma and acrosomal membranes integrity were evaluated by FITC-PSA and PI association. In order to detect amino acid tyrosine phosphorylation, we used the anti-phosphotyrosine antibody conjugated to a fluorescein (DAF-2). In order to quantify the amount of nitric oxide produced by cryopreserved equine sperm, the fluorescent probe DAF was used, and to evaluate the lipid peroxidation of sperm membrane we used the probe BODIPY-C11. The probe H33342 was used in order to prevent that particles of the same size and granularity of sperm cell were included in the counting of flow cytometry analyses. Data were analyzed by ANOVA and comparison of means within each time by the Tukey test, at a significance level of 5%, using SAS software. Removing NO from the culture medium inhibited the motility of sperm cells at all incubation times. Total and progressive motilities were reduced in both groups, M and AM. Sperms incubated with the scavenger of NO had the highest percentage of cells with intact plasma and acrosomal membranes at 60 and 120 minutes of incubation (p <0.05). Acrosomal reaction was induced in treatments with L-arginine (A, AL). Within each treatment, the amount of NO produced by sperms, the level of amino acid tyrosine phosphorylation and lipid peroxidation had no differences between the times used (p> 0.05). A reduction of these variables in groups M and AM (p <0.05) was observed. However, a dose of 1 mM L-NAME was not sufficient to inhibit NOS in cryopreserved equine sperm. Removal of NO maintains plasma and acrosomal membranes integrity, however completely inhibits sperm motility, suggesting a beneficial role of endogenous NO in the maintenance of motility of cryopreserved equine spermatozoa.

No Brasil utiliza-se, como técnica de caracterização da fração fina dos solos tropicais, entre outras, o ensaio de adsorção de azul de metileno pelo método da mancha. No entanto, para alguns solos, há dificuldade na identificação do ponto de viragem, ou seja, quando há excesso de corante não adsorvido pelo solo. Assim, apresenta-se neste trabalho uma técnica alternativa para facilitar a determinação do volume de azul de metileno adsorvido por um solo, cujo método é baseado na adição em excesso de azul de metileno à amostra e na titulação de óxido-redução volumétrica (redox) do azul de metileno que não é adsorvido pelo solo. Para a avaliação do ensaio de adsorção de azul de metileno pelo método redox foram ensaiadas 85 amostras de solos e, a partir dos resultados, foram estabelecidos seus graus de atividade que, por sua vez, foram correlacionados com a previsão de comportamento dos solos dada pela MCT. Conclui-se que o procedimento de ensaio proposto é simples e a percepção do ponto de viragem na titulação do excesso de azul de metileno pelo agente oxidante permanganato de potássio é fácil para maioria dos solos, além de apresentar uma boa concordância com os resultados fornecidos pela classificação MCT, permitindo estabelecer, com razoável segurança, a atividade dos argilo-minerais presentes no solo / The methylene blue dye adsorption test (spot test) has been used in Brazil to characterize tropical soil fine fractions. Some soils, however, show difficulties in identifying the test end point, where there is excess of methylene blue in the suspension, not adsorbed by the soil. This work presents an alternative technique to determine the volume of methylene blue adsorbed by a soil, based on the addition of methylene blue in excess to the soil sample and in the determination of the amount of methylene blue that was not adsorbed by the soil through the oxide-reduction (redox) process. For the evaluation of the methylene blue adsorption test (using the redox test), 85 soil samples were tested; their activity levels were established and then correlated with the expected behavior defined by the MCT classification system. The main conclusion of the work is that the proposed method is simple and the identification of the reverse point in the oxide-reduction (redox) process is easy for a majority of soils. The process uses potassium permanganate as the oxidizing agent. It determines, with a great degree of accuracy, the activity levels of the mineral clay portions, showing a significant concordance with the results of the MCT classification system

1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide ([BMIM]Tf2N) was investigated as a multifunctional solvent, ligand, and reducing agent for platinum deposition onto well-defined CdSe@CdS nanorods. Platinum deposition was carried out thermally and photochemically using Pt(acac)2 as the metal precursor. Thermal deposition was investigated in [BMIM]Tf2N with and without addition of a sacrificial reducing agent, and product topology was compared with the products obtained from polyol reduction using 1,2-hexadecanediol, oleic acid, and oleylamine in diphenyl ether. Photochemically induced platinum deposition was carried out at room temperature in [BMIM]Tf2N, and product topology was compared with the photodeposition products obtained from a toluene dispersion. Thermal deposition of platinum in ionic liquid showed rods of broken morphology and small platinum nanoparticles speckled across the rods’ surface, while photodeposition of platinum exhibited particles decorated throughout the nanorod surface but larger in size than those exhibited by thermal means. Photocatalytic reduction of methylene blue was studied using these Pt-CdSe@CdS heterostructured nanoparticles, and catalytic performance was correlated with topology and synthetic history. Initial findings of catalytic performance suggest that there in an advantage of depositing platinum nanoparticles onto the CdSe@CdS in the ionic liquid system. Methylene blue dye was degraded using each system and the results show and there is an increased performance of the nanorods synthesized in the ionic system.

Titanium dioxide(TiO2) is a stable, effective and well-known photocatalyst for degradation of pollutants. However, its practical applications are limited due to the need for energy higher than 3.2 eV, or a wavelength lower than 390 nm (high frequency waves, ultraviolet and above) hindering its ability to effectively work in the visible light region (about 400 nm to 700 nm). Nitrogen-doped TiO2 (N-TiO2) has garnered some attention as a photocatalyst as it appears to work even in the visible light region. This could allow the utilization of a larger part of the solar spectrum. This thesis presents the results of photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue (MB) carried out under simulated visible light by using TiO2 and N-TiO2(doped in the lab) to evaluate and compare their efficiencies under similar conditions.

The recently discovered cucurbit[n]uril are a range of macrocyclic hosts which have enormous potential in industrial, medical and academic applications. Cucurbit[n]uril have a rigid repeating structure of methylene bridged glycouril, which give cucurbit[n]uril their gourd like shape of a cavity with two carbonyl fringed portals. In this thesis the host-guest binding abilities of three cucurbit[n]uril (n = 6, 7, 8) have been examined for a range of potential guests. These guests ranged from simple alkyl amines through globular alkyl and carboranyl amines to bipyridyl systems. In total 45 guest molecules where examined. Most of the guests examined where either cationically charged, capable of hydrogen binding, contained a substantial molecular dipole, or a combination of these. Furthermore, all of the potential guests examined had some solubility in an acidified aqueous sodium sulfate solution within which the host-guest properties were examined. It was generally found that the larger guests did have selectivity for the larger hosts. However, when the host became too large weaker complexes would form and for the range of materials examined here cucurbit[7]uril was found to be the 'best' host system. In one example, p-xylene diamine, a 2:1 complex with cucurbit[8]uril was observed. While not the focus of this work a new rapid purification method was developed for the cucurbit[n]uril using different metal ions to either solubilise or precipitate the different cucurbit[n]uril. In the second part of this work these same guest molecules where used as potential templates in the synthesis of cucurbit[n]uril. Surprisingly the guests that bound strongly to an individual host did not seem to template the cucurbit[n]uril synthesis at all. Rather these strong binders inhibited the reaction such that little or no cucurbit[n]uril formed under the reaction conditions studied. However, several examples provided excellent template results. Indeed the results indicate that guests which bound with intermediate rates of exchange are the best templates and using templates under these conditions we have been able to produce cucurbit[7]uril as 46% by mass of the total cucurbit[n]uril product. This is the highest yield ever recorded for cucurbit[7]uril and it is the first example of cucurbit[7]uril being the major product of this condensation reaction. In an another example cucurbit[8]uril formed 18% of the product an increase of 150% over the standard reaction conditions. While studying both the template reactions and the host-guest binding properties of the cucurbit[n]uril a new supramolecular form, an 'inverse rotaxane' was discovered. Inverse rotaxanes are not held in place by large blocking groups, rather the molecular structure encapsulated by the cucurbit[n]uril host prevents decomplexation of the axle.

This thesis describes the synthesis and isolation of silver, mercury, ruthenium and palladium complexes of bidentate N-heterocyclic carbenes (NHCs), derived from imidazolium-linked cyclophanes and related bis-imidazolium salts. The cyclophane structures contain two imidazolyl links between ortho- and meta- substituted aromatic rings and the related structures are ortho-, meta- and para-xylyl linked bis-imidazolium salts. The complexes have been characterised by NMR spectroscopy and X-ray crystallography. The synthesis of five new silver complexes has been achieved via a simple complexation reaction of the cyclophane and bis-imidazolium salts with the basic metal source Ag2O. The new silver carbene systems are thermally stable. Three of the complexes are dinuclear, cationic complexes, while two are mononuclear complexes, one cationic and one neutral. A number of mono- and di-nuclear mercury(II)-NHC complexes have been synthesised from the ortho- and meta-linked cyclophanes and the related meta-linked bis-imidazolium salts. The mercury complexes were prepared by direct mercuration method using mercury(II) acetate. The syntheses were perfomed in air and the complexes are stable to air and moisture. Mercury complexes I and II represent the first example of mononuclear metal complexes derived from meta-substituted imidazolium-linked cyclophanes. NHC-ligand transfer reactions from NHC-silver complexes and NHC-mercury complexes are described. An ortho-cyclophane ligand was successfully transfered from a silver complex to its palladium counterpart. Furthermore, palladium complex III, bearing a para-xylyl linked bis-NHC ligand, was made by transmetallation from both a silver and mercury complex. This is the first reported NHC-palladium complex of a para-xylyl linked bis-NHC ligand. A new redox transmetallation method for NHC ligand transfer, using a mercury complex, is presented. A palladium complex was made via redox transmetallation using a mercury complex of an ortho-NHC-cyclophane. A ruthenium(II)-NHC complex, IV containing an ortho-cyclophane ligand has been prepared via silver transmetallation and in situ complexation methods. In the transmetallation route, a silver complex of an ortho-cyclophane was treated with RuCl2(PPh3)3 to form IV. This complex represents the first example of a ruthenium complex bearing an NHC-cyclophane ligand, v and is also the first example of a metal complex derived from an imidazolium-linked cyclophane where the arene unit of the cyclophane is also involved in bonding to the metal centre.

The use of transition metal catalysts - either homogeneous (discrete well-defined metal complexes) or heterogeneous (more poorly-defined metal surfaces) - play an important role in the transformations of small substrates into larger, value-added compounds. Although heterogeneous catalysts have the greater industrial applicability, there has been enormous interest in homogeneous transition metal systems for effecting selective transformations of small substrate molecules. The bulk of these homogeneous systems are mononuclear. Perhaps surprisingly, very little research has focuses on systems with adjacent metal centres. Binuclear systems possess adjacent metals that may interact and possibly lead to transformations not observed in monometallic systems. It is this opportunity for adjacent metal involvement in substrate activation that is the focus of this dissertation. the goal of this research is to gain an increased understanding of metal-metal cooperativity and adjacent metal involvement in substrate transformations; how can adjacent metal involvement lead to substrate activation not seen in monometallic counterparts, and what role does each metal play in these interactions, particularly when the two metals are different. Throughout this dissertation examples of transformation unique to systems with at least two metals are presented and examined with a particular focus on the roles of the two metals and any associated binding modes in these transformations. In addition, by comparing the RhOs, RhRu and IrRu systems, the influence of metal substitution is also examined. For example, diazoalkane activation and C-c bond formation promoted by the Rh-based systems is investigated, the roles of the adjacent metals of the IrRu system in the conversion of methylene groups to oxygenates is examined, and the unusual geminal C-H bond activation of olefinic substrates is explored. Overall, the work presented within this thesis adds to the growing understanding of adjacent metal cooperativety, leading us toward a more rational approach to the design of homogeneous homo- and heterobimetallic catalysts, heterogeneous catalyst and nanoparticle catalysts for selective substrate transformations.

Apatite was formed on the surface of titanium dioxide (TiO2) powders by a biomimetic process. The deposition was accomplished by immersing TiO2 powders in simulated body fluid (SBF) for 1, 3, 6, 12, and 24 h. SBF used throughout this study had calcium and phosphate ion concentrations 10 times greater than those of human blood plasma. Photocatalytic activity of the apatite-deposited TiO2 powders was investigated in terms of the decomposition of methylene blue solution under ultraviolet (UV) irradiation. It has been shown that apatite deposition enhanced the photocatalytic activity of TiO2. The best photocatalytic performance was acquired on the powders that are immersed in SBF for 3 h. The time required for the complete degradation of methylene blue decreased from 3.5 h to 2 h upon immersion of powders in SBF for 3 h. Photochemical durability of poly(methyl methacrylate) increased when it was mixed with apatite-deposited TiO2 powders.

Current approaches to treat neurodegenerative disease provide only mild symptomatic relief but do not modify the natural history of these conditions. A large body of evidence suggests that mitochondrial dysfunction is a key event in the pathophysiology of neurodegeneration. Supporting and improving mitochondrial function has a big potential as a strategy for neuroprotection. The goal of this dissertation was to test whether interventions that target mitochondrial function are effective at preventing neurodegeneration induced by mitochondrial failure in vivo. A rodent model of optic neuropathy induced by the mitochondrial toxin rotenone was used to test the neuroprotective effects of methylene blue (MB) and near-infrared light (NIL), two interventions with mechanisms of action localized to mitochondria. This work also tested the effects of memantine, an NMDA receptor blocker, to further characterize the relationship between excitotoxicity and mitochondrial dysfunction. Neuroprotective effects were evaluated via behavioral testing of visual function and histopathological analysis of the retina. The neurochemical effects of MB, NIL and memantine were analyzed in vitro and in vivo with indicators of oxidative stress, cell respiration and catalytic activity of respiratory enzymes, including NADH dehydrogenase and cytochrome oxidase. MB, a diaminophenothiazine with potent antioxidant and unique redox properties, prevented the changes in visual function and the retinal histopathology induced by rotenone. In vitro, MB increased oxygen consumption and prevented the increases in oxidative stress in brain tissue induced by rotenone. NIL prevented the behavioral impairment and the decrease in retinal and visual pathway metabolic activity, retinal nerve fiber layer thickness and ganglion cell layer cell density induced by rotenone in a dose-dependent manner. Whole-brain cytochrome oxidase and superoxide dismutase activities were also increased in NIL-treated subjects in a dose-dependent manner, suggesting an in vivo transcranial effect of NIL. Finally, uncompetitive NMDA receptor blockade with memantine displayed neuroprotection against rotenone-induced neurodegeneration in a dose-response manner, and this effect was associated with a decrease in retinal oxidative stress and a long-term increase in neuronal energy metabolism capacity. These data constitute a proof-of-principle that interventions that target the mitochondria and support the function of the respiratory chain are effective at preventing neurodegeneration in vivo. / text