Agroecosystem and cycling loops are open when considering the reutilization of inputs in farming areas. Non-renewable resources have been transformed or relocated from the air, water and land into the system and are flowing out as wastes rather than reusable, recyclable resources. Therefore, current trends in agriculture have moved towards more sustainable cultivation systems with higher efficiency of input use, since mineral nutrient losses due to runoff, leaching, erosion and gas emissions are leading to environmental degradation. A huge variety of materials can serve as a crop nutrient supply and they can be derived from different resources. The integrated plant nutrition system (IPNS) thrives tailoring plant nutrition and soil fertility management, taking advantage of the conjunctive and harmonious use of inorganic, organic and biological resources. We hypothesize that the synergetic effects of the combination of humic acid HA + biofertilizer will improve plant agronomic outcomes when comparing the application of each product alone. We initiated this project conducting a greenhouse study and field experiments evaluating the effects of an IPNS on corn. Posteriorly, the positive results in terms of corn biomass increasing, led to another greenhouse study addressing cannabis (Cannabis sativa L.) due its valuable biomass as an end/selling product. The greenhouse studies evaluated the effects of commercial synthetic fertilizer, HA, compost/manure teas and bioinoculant as inorganic, organic and biological resources, respectively, and their synergy on corn and cannabis early development under a period of water deficit stress. Generally, for both studies, when compared to the control values, the use of HA, biofertilizers and the integration of both substances generated significantly greater early season plant height, chlorophyll content and photosynthetic efficiency. The three-year field trial investigated the effects of nitrogen (N) fertilizer, HA, compost/manure teas and bioinoculant as inorganic, organic and biological resources, respectively and their synergy on corn growth. The individual and integrated application of HA and biofertilizer generally influenced corn development, to varying degrees. In 2017, corn height, NDVI, greenness and vigor were sensitive to the application of these biostimulants in different magnitudes and growth stages, however grain yield and nutrient content were not affected. In combined studies from 2018 and 2019 corn height was not impacted by biostimulant application but NDVI, photosynthetic efficiency, greenness and vigor were affected at different doses and corn growth stages. Only one treatment integrating HA + biofertilizer led to increased grain yield. In sum, these studies provided evidence that the individual and combined application of HA and biofertilizer can positively influence corn and cannabis growth most likely due to their plant biostimulant effects. However, the current study cannot conclusively affirm that the integrated use of HA and biofertilizers following the IPNS is a superior practice than the application of each compound individually and further studies should be conducted to validate these findings. / Doctor of Philosophy / The status of the corn (Zea mays L.) demand in Virginia and the Mid-Atlantic region is currently in deficit regarding the production in this area. This demand is exceeding supply by approximately 150%, then increasing feed grain yield and consequently production in the region can be simultaneously beneficial to crop farmers, end-users and the entire food supply chain. Furthermore, the consumer market is becoming more aware about sustainable practices for food production, which encourages producers to adopt agricultural practices that can minimize negative environmental impacts. This scenario enforces the scientific community's responsibility to test and develop environmental-friendly methods able to increase fertilization efficiency, decreasing the use in synthetic inputs but maintaining yield. The integrated plant nutrition system (IPNS) implements the combined and harmonious use of inorganic, organic and biological resources to take advantage of the potential synergetic effects. We conducted greenhouse studies and field experiments evaluating the effects of an IPNS on corn, and posteriorly based on the preliminary results obtained with corn, a greenhouse study addressing cannabis (Cannabis sativa L.) was also carried out. The greenhouse studies evaluated the effects of commercial synthetic fertilizer, humic acid (HA), compost/manure teas and bioinoculant as inorganic, organic and biological resources, respectively, and their synergy on corn and cannabis growth under a period of drought. Generally, for both studies, when comparing to the control values, the use of HA, biofertilizers and the integration of both compounds generated significantly greater early season plant height and photosynthesis measurements. The three-year field trial investigated the effects of nitrogen (N) fertilizer, HA, compost/manure teas and bioinoculant as inorganic, organic and biological resources, respectively and their synergy on corn growth. The individual and combined application of HA and biofertilizer generally influenced corn development, to varying degrees. In 2017, corn height, vegetation index, greenness and vigor were sensitive to the application of these biostimulants in different magnitudes and growth stages, however grain yield and nutrient content were not affected. In combined studies from 2018 and 2019 corn height was not impacted by biostimulant application but vegetation index, photosynthetic efficiency, greenness and vigor were affected at different doses and corn growth stages. Only one treatment combining HA + biofertilizer led to increased grain yield. In sum, these studies provided evidence that the individual and combined application of HA and biofertilizer can positively influence corn and cannabis growth most likely due their plant biostimulant effects. Even though, the current study cannot affirm that the combined use of HA and biofertilizers following the IPNS is a better practice than the application of each compound individually, this practice can be a more sustainable alternative to fit in the conventional farming scene.

Concern over rising atmospheric CO2 due to fossil fuel combustion has intensified research into carbon-neutral energy and fuel production. Therefore, bioenergy production has expanded during the last decade, increasing demand for forest-based bioenergy feedstocks. Millions of acres of privately and industrially owned pine plantations exist across the southeastern US, representing a vast area of land that could be utilized to produce bioenergy without significant land-use change or diversion of agricultural resources from food production. Furthermore, loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) plantations offer the unique opportunity to utilize space between rows of planted trees to grow an herbaceous bioenergy crop, such as switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.). This novel forest management regime has the potential to provide positive environmental and economic services, but hinges in part on impacts to soil carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) cycling, availability of belowground resources, and potential negative impacts of competition between pine and switchgrass on plant productivity. Three specific objectives were addressed in this study: 1) compare different bioenergy management regimes in regards to temporal dynamics of N cycling and availability following forest establishment (see Chapter 2); 2) determine the impact of loblolly pine and switchgrass intercropping on microbial N cycling processes (see Chapter 3); and 3) evaluate chemical and physical mechanisms of soil organic matter (SOM) stabilization and test their sensitivity to pine-switchgrass intercropping (see Chapter 4). The study site was located in the Lower Coastal Plain physiographic province in Lenoir County, North Carolina, USA (35-12'59'' N; 077-26'13'' W). Soils were mapped as Pantego (fine‐loamy, siliceous, semiactive, thermic Umbric Paleaquults) or Rains (fine‐loamy, siliceous, semiactive, thermic Typic Paleaquults) soil series, both of which are very poorly drained. However, previous site management in the late 1960’s and early 1970’s included installation of ditches to lower the water table and reduce saturation at the soil surface. Additionally, bedding of soil in rows was used to raise root systems of planted loblolly pine seedlings above the water table, increase soil aeration, and reduce competition. Space between bedded rows of pine trees was referred to as the interbed. Results from Chapter 2 showed that switchgrass significantly reduced interbed soil NH4 + and NO3 - concentrations by 39% and 60%, respectively, over the course of the timeframe (30 months) of this study. Surprisingly, in beds of the pine-switchgrass treatment significant increases in NO3 - concentration were measured from July - December 2011. From Chapter 3, gross N mineralization rates ranged from 0.18 - 4.7 µg N g -1 soil d-1 , while gross nitrification rates ranged from 0.02 - 0.47 µg N g-1 soil d-1 . At the 0-5 cm depth in switchgrass interbeds, gross N mineralization was reduced from April to November potentially reflecting microbial C limitations due to reduced soil C concentrations. At the 0-5 cm depth in beds of the pine-switchgrass treatment, gross N mineralization rates were elevated by 1.29 µg N iii g -1 soil d-1 in November and 1.02 µg N g-1 soil d-1 in February on average corresponding to a 305% and 193% increase, respectively. From Chapter 4, total C content in beds and interbeds ranged from 15 to 88 Mg C ha-1 and was reduced by 27% in beds of the pine-switchgrass treatment. Average C concentration for aggregate fractions was significantly lower in beds of the pine-switchgrass treatment at 0-5, 15- 30, and 30-45 cm depths, amounting to ~23%, ~28%, and ~34% reduction, respectively. Values of δ 13C for the >2000 µm aggregate size fraction at the 0-5 cm depth were diluted, corresponding to estimates of 13 - 25% of the >2000 µm C pool comprised of new pine-derived C. For SOM fractionated by density, elevated C concentrations were found in the occluded light fractions in both beds and interbeds of the pine-switchgrass treatment. Enriched δ13C in occluded light fractions led to estimates of 2.5 - 12.5% of this C fraction comprised of new switchgrass-derived C. In the free light fraction, new pine-derived C accounted for 15% and 9% of C at the 5-15 and 15-30 cm depth, respectively. Three overarching conclusions were generated from my research: 1) switchgrass grown between loblolly pine trees effectively utilized excess soil NH4 + and NO3 - when N availability was high following harvesting of a mature plantation proceeded by establishment of a second rotation of loblolly pine (see Chapter 2); 2) gross N mineralization rates were reduced under switchgrass during the growing season when soil C availability was low, but were elevated under switchgrass and adjacent loblolly pines when switchgrass was dormant and C availability was likely higher (see Chapter 3); and 3) SOM stabilized by physical or chemical mechanisms responded differently to pine-switchgrass intercropping, with losses in aggregate-stabilized C and gains in occluded, mineral-stabilized C. Furthermore, losses of aggregate C was associated with a significant reduction in total soil C in beds of the pine-switchgrass treatment. Results from 13C mass balance suggested incorporation of switchgrass-derived C into occluded light fractions of beds and interbeds. Finally, incorporation of new pine-derived C into the >2000 µm aggregate size fraction and free light fraction indicate pine inputs of particulate organic matter into these SOM fractions in beds of the pine-switchgrass treatment (see Chapter 4). I hypothesize that loblolly pines have increased root growth in beds in response to competition with switchgrass for N in the interbed, thereby alleviating seasonal microbial C limitations and stimulating microbial N cycling processes and increasing plant-available N. Overall, this research suggests that soil C and N cycling in pine plantations is altered by intercropping of pine and switchgrass. Through a mechanistic understanding of how C and N are cycled in forests and the impact of various forest management regimes on soil C and N cycling, effective management strategies can be implemented to utilize forests for intensive biomass production while limiting loss of soil C and N, and in some cases even enhancing soil C and N retention. Future research initiatives should seek to unravel the complex belowground interactions between roots of different plant species and soil microbial communities competing for limiting resources. Understanding how these interactions drive soil C storage, N cycling and availability, and forest productivity will ultimately improve resource utilization in these managed ecosystems as well as our basic understanding of how natural and managed ecosystems function. / Ph. D.

Forests of the southeastern U.S. play an important role in meeting the increasing demand for forest products, and represent an important carbon (C) sink that can be managed as a potential tool for mitigating atmospheric CO2 concentrations and global climate change. However, realizing this potential depends on full accounting of the ecosystem carbon (C) budget. The separate evaluation of root-derived, autotrophic (RA) and microbially-derived heterotrophic (RH) soil respiration in response to management and climate change is important, as environmental and ecological factors often differentially affect these components, and RH can be weighed against net primary productivity (NPP) to estimate the C sink or source status of forest ecosystems. The objective of this research was to improve the quantitative and mechanistic understanding of soil respiratory fluxes in managed loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) plantations of the southeastern U.S. To achieve this overall objective, three studies were implemented to: 1) estimate the proportion and seasonality of RH:RS in four stand age classes, and identify relationships between RH:RS and stand characteristics 2) evaluate the effects of forest nutrient management and throughfall reduction on factors that influence RH and decomposition dynamics, including litter quality, microbial biomass, and enzyme activity and 3) evaluate the sensitivity of sources of RH (mineral soil-derived heterotrophic respiration; RHM, and leaf litter-derived heterotrophic respiration; RHL) to varying soil and litter water content over the course of a dry down event, and assess whether fertilization influences RH. Stand age and measurement season each had a significant effect on RH:RS (P < 0.001), but there were no interactive effects (P = 0.202). Mean RH:RS during the 12-month study declined with stand age, and were 0.82, 0.73, 0.59, and 0.50 for 3-year-old, 9-year-old, 18- year-old, and 25-year-old stands, respectively. Across all age classes, the winter season had the highest mean RH:RS of 0.85 while summer had the lowest of 0.55. Additionally, there were highly significant (P < 0.001) and strong (r > 0.5) correlations between RH:RS and peak LAI, stem volume, and understory biomass. Fertilization improved litter quality by significantly decreasing lignin:N and lignin:P ratios, caused a shift in extracellular enzyme activity from mineral soil N- and P-acquiring enzyme activity to litter C-acquiring enzyme activity, and increased microbial biomass pools. Throughfall reduction decreased litter quality by increasing lignin:N and lignin:P, but also increased C-acquiring enzyme activity. RHL was more sensitive to water content than RHM, and increased linearly with increasing litter water content (R2 = 0.89). The contribution of RHL to RH was greatest immediately following the wetting event, and decreased rapidly to near-zero between three – 10 days. RHM also had a strong relationship with soil water content (R2 = 0.62), but took between 200 – 233 days to attain near-zero RHM rates. Fertilization had no effect on RHM (P = 0.657), but significantly suppressed RHL rates after the wetting event (P < 0.009). This research provides estimates of RH:RS in managed loblolly pine systems that can be used to improve regional ecosystem C modeling efforts, and demonstrates the need to consider the impact of stand age and seasonal patterns to identify the point at which plantations switch from functioning as C sources to C sinks. Additionally, it demonstrates that the controls over RH are dynamic and influenced in the short-term by fertilization and changed precipitation regimes, with the greatest impact on properties affecting litter RH compared to mineral soil. Future research should work to improve the mechanistic understanding of the seasonal and spatial variability of RH and related controlling biotic and abiotic parameters to remedy the variability in existing RS and ecosystem C models. Understanding how management and climate change may impact factors that control RH will ultimately improve our understanding of what drives changes in forest C fluxes. / Ph. D. / Quantification of the heterotrophic component of total soil respiration is important for estimating forest carbon (C) pools and fluxes, and for understanding how silvicultural management and climate change may influence forest C dynamics. The separate evaluation of root-derived, autotrophic (R_A) and microbially-derived heterotrophic (R_H) soil respiration is necessary, as environmental and ecological factors often differentially affect these components, and R_H can be weighed against net primary productivity (NPP) to estimate the C sink or source status of forest ecosystems. This research examined the dynamics of R_H in loblolly pine plantations of the southeastern U.S., and the drivers of RH and organic matter decomposition in response to forest management (fertilization) and reduced precipitation (throughfall reduction) to improve the quantitative and mechanistic understanding of this important C flux. This work provided estimates of R_H in managed loblolly pine systems that can be used to improve regional ecosystem C modeling efforts, and demonstrates the need to consider the impact of stand age and seasonal patterns to identify the point at which plantations switch from functioning as C sources to C sinks. Additionally, it demonstrates that the controls over R_H, such as substrate quality and microbial community activity and biomass, are dynamic and influenced in the short-term by fertilization and altered moisture availability, with the greatest impact on properties affecting forest floor R_H compared to mineral soil R_H. Future research should work to improve the mechanistic understanding of the seasonal and spatial variability of R_H and related controlling biotic and abiotic parameters to remedy the variability in existing R_S and ecosystem C models. Understanding how management and climate change may impact factors that control R_H will ultimately improve our understanding of what drives changes in forest C fluxes.

<p>Although there are many examples of microbial biogeography, few microbes have been studied at high taxonomic resolution over large spatial scales. As a result, the environmental and ecological processes that drive niche partitioning, diversity, composition, and activity of microbial taxa are often poorly understood. To address this gap, I examine the most abundant phytoplankton in the global ocean, Prochlorococcus sp., a marine cyanobacterium. Using amplicon libraries of the Prochlorococcus internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region and 23S rRNA gene as markers, I demonstrate several key differences between the two major high light (HL) clades of Prochlorococcus. First, by examining ITS amplicon libraries at high taxonomic resolution it is revealed that “sub-ecotype” clades have unique, cohesive responses to environmental variables and distinct biogeographies, suggesting that presently defined ecotypes can be further partitioned into ecologically meaningful units. Whereas unique combinations of environmental traits drive the distribution of the HL-I sub-ecotype clades, the HL-II sub-ecotype clades appear ecologically coherent. Second, using 23S rRNA and rDNA libraries I show that activity (rRNA) and abundance (rDNA) are highly correlated for Prochlorococcus across all sites and operational taxonomic units (OTUs) in the surface ocean, demonstrating a tight coupling between activity and abundance. Finally, I investigate the associations between Prochlorococcus and the rest of the microbial community in the North Pacific and find region-specific trends in both strength and sign. Associations with other microbes are strongest for HL-I in the temperate region and strongest for HL-II in the sub-tropical gyre. This dissertation clarifies the relative importance of the environment, geography, community, and taxonomy in terms of their role in creating complex assemblages of Prochlorococcus and helps improve our understanding of how marine microbial communities are assembled in situ.</p> / Dissertation

A mesofauna edáfica compreende pequenos invertebrados que vivem nos primeiros centímetros do solo e na serapilheira. Sabe-se que o plantio de leguminosas com espécies arbóreas não fixadoras de nitrogênio melhora a fertilidade do solo, porém não se conhece o efeito desses plantios nos invertebrados edáficos. Diante disso, objetivou-se, com este estudo, avaliar o efeito de plantios puros e mistos de Eucalyptus grandis e Acacia mangium na mesofauna edáfica e estabelecer relações da mesofauna com os atributos químicos do solo e da serapilheira e os microbiológicos do solo, a fim de se construir um novo indicador de qualidade do solo. Para tanto, em outubro de 2015 (estação seca) e março de 2016 (estação chuvosa) foram avaliados os atributos físico-químicos da serapilheira (Ca, Mg, N, P, C, C/N, C/P, Mn, Cu, Fe, Zn, umidade), microbiológicos do solo (C mic, respiração do solo e atividade da desidrogenase), a umidade do solo e a mesofauna do solo e da serapilheira (riqueza, densidade e diversidade de mesofauna). Já os atributos químicos do solo (pH, Ca, Mg, C, N, P, Al, H+Al, Na, K) foram avaliados apenas em outubro. A média dos atributos foi comparada pelo teste de Tukey a 5%, enquanto que correlações, regressões e análises multivariadas foram feitas para estabelecer relações entre a mesofauna e os atributos do solo e da serapilheira e, posteriormente, construir um indicador geral de qualidade do solo. A fauna que habita a serapilheira, os atributos microbiológicos do solo e o indicador geral de qualidade do solo apresentaram maiores valores na estação chuvosa. A umidade foi muito correlacionada com os atributos biológicos do solo e da serapilheira. Foram também constatadas diferenças entre tratamentos, sendo que na estação seca há preferência da mesofauna pelo hábitat solo, possivelmente com a prevalência de relações mutualísticas entre microrganismos e mesofauna, enquanto há uma expressiva preferência da mesofauna pela serapilheira durante a estação úmida. / Soil mesofauna comprises small invertebrates that live in the first centimeters of the soil and in the litter. The consortium between leguminous trees and non-nitrogen-fixing tree species improves soil fertility, but the effect of these plantations on edaphic invertebrates is not known yet. Thus, we aimed at evaluating the effect of pure and mixed plantation of Eucalyptus grandis and Acacia mangium on the invertebrates that inhabit the soil and litter. We looked for correlations between those plantations, soil and litter chemical attributes and soil microbiological attributes to create a general indicator of soil quality in Acacia mangium (AC), Eucalyptus grandis (EU) and mixed plantations of Acacia and Eucalyptus (M). The chemical litter attributes evaluated were Ca, Mg, N, P, C, C/N, C/P, Mn, Cu, Fe, Zn, besides soil and litter moisture, soil microbiology (microbial carbon, soil respiration and dehydrogenase activity) and soil and litter mesofauna (richness, density and diversity) in two seasons: October 2015 (dry season) and March 2016 (rainy season). Soil chemical analyses (pH, Ca, Mg, C, N, P, Al, H+Al, Na, and K) were from samples collected in October. We made comparisons of the means between forest systems, and established a general indicator of soil quality based on regressions and multivariate analyses, to identify correlations between mesofaunaand chemical and microbiological attributes. Litter mesofauna, microbial activity and the general indicator of soil quality presented much higher values in the rainy season than in the dry season. Moisture correlated positively with most of the soil and litter biological attributes. There were few differences between the forest systems; although we observed a clear mesofauna preference for soil as habitat in the dry season, possibly linked to the prevailance of mutualistic interactions between soil mesofauna and microorganisms, while the mesofauna showed great preference for the litter as habitat during the moist season.

A mesofauna edáfica compreende pequenos invertebrados que vivem nos primeiros centímetros do solo e na serapilheira. Sabe-se que o plantio de leguminosas com espécies arbóreas não fixadoras de nitrogênio melhora a fertilidade do solo, porém não se conhece o efeito desses plantios nos invertebrados edáficos. Diante disso, objetivou-se, com este estudo, avaliar o efeito de plantios puros e mistos de Eucalyptus grandis e Acacia mangium na mesofauna edáfica e estabelecer relações da mesofauna com os atributos químicos do solo e da serapilheira e os microbiológicos do solo, a fim de se construir um novo indicador de qualidade do solo. Para tanto, em outubro de 2015 (estação seca) e março de 2016 (estação chuvosa) foram avaliados os atributos físico-químicos da serapilheira (Ca, Mg, N, P, C, C/N, C/P, Mn, Cu, Fe, Zn, umidade), microbiológicos do solo (C mic, respiração do solo e atividade da desidrogenase), a umidade do solo e a mesofauna do solo e da serapilheira (riqueza, densidade e diversidade de mesofauna). Já os atributos químicos do solo (pH, Ca, Mg, C, N, P, Al, H+Al, Na, K) foram avaliados apenas em outubro. A média dos atributos foi comparada pelo teste de Tukey a 5%, enquanto que correlações, regressões e análises multivariadas foram feitas para estabelecer relações entre a mesofauna e os atributos do solo e da serapilheira e, posteriormente, construir um indicador geral de qualidade do solo. A fauna que habita a serapilheira, os atributos microbiológicos do solo e o indicador geral de qualidade do solo apresentaram maiores valores na estação chuvosa. A umidade foi muito correlacionada com os atributos biológicos do solo e da serapilheira. Foram também constatadas diferenças entre tratamentos, sendo que na estação seca há preferência da mesofauna pelo hábitat solo, possivelmente com a prevalência de relações mutualísticas entre microrganismos e mesofauna, enquanto há uma expressiva preferência da mesofauna pela serapilheira durante a estação úmida. / Soil mesofauna comprises small invertebrates that live in the first centimeters of the soil and in the litter. The consortium between leguminous trees and non-nitrogen-fixing tree species improves soil fertility, but the effect of these plantations on edaphic invertebrates is not known yet. Thus, we aimed at evaluating the effect of pure and mixed plantation of Eucalyptus grandis and Acacia mangium on the invertebrates that inhabit the soil and litter. We looked for correlations between those plantations, soil and litter chemical attributes and soil microbiological attributes to create a general indicator of soil quality in Acacia mangium (AC), Eucalyptus grandis (EU) and mixed plantations of Acacia and Eucalyptus (M). The chemical litter attributes evaluated were Ca, Mg, N, P, C, C/N, C/P, Mn, Cu, Fe, Zn, besides soil and litter moisture, soil microbiology (microbial carbon, soil respiration and dehydrogenase activity) and soil and litter mesofauna (richness, density and diversity) in two seasons: October 2015 (dry season) and March 2016 (rainy season). Soil chemical analyses (pH, Ca, Mg, C, N, P, Al, H+Al, Na, and K) were from samples collected in October. We made comparisons of the means between forest systems, and established a general indicator of soil quality based on regressions and multivariate analyses, to identify correlations between mesofaunaand chemical and microbiological attributes. Litter mesofauna, microbial activity and the general indicator of soil quality presented much higher values in the rainy season than in the dry season. Moisture correlated positively with most of the soil and litter biological attributes. There were few differences between the forest systems; although we observed a clear mesofauna preference for soil as habitat in the dry season, possibly linked to the prevailance of mutualistic interactions between soil mesofauna and microorganisms, while the mesofauna showed great preference for the litter as habitat during the moist season.

This Degree Project has been done at Växjö University, department of bioenergy technology and discusses the released thermal power in wood pellets. The purpose of the project is to investigate if two new types of wood biofuels (pellets) are more or less reactive than the pellets previously investigated at Växjö University. To measure the released thermal power, an isothermal calorimeter with eight channels has been used. To see how the microbial activity is influenced, the pellets have been stored under various conditions with focus on temperature and metal.

<p>This Degree Project has been done at Växjö University, department of bioenergy technology and discusses the released thermal power in wood pellets. The purpose of the project is to investigate if two new types of wood biofuels (pellets) are more or less reactive than the pellets previously investigated at Växjö University. To measure the released thermal power, an isothermal calorimeter with eight channels has been used. To see how the microbial activity is influenced, the pellets have been stored under various conditions with focus on temperature and metal.</p>

Mining activities cause severe disturbance to the soil environment in terms of soil quality and productivity and are of serious concern worldwide. Under South African legislation, developers are required to ecologically rehabilitate damaged environments. The application of agronomic approaches for the rehabilitation of coal discard sites has failed dismally in the arid areas of southern Africa. It is obvious that compliance with mitigation and rehabilitation requirements cannot be enforced without a thorough understanding of the ecological principles that ensure ecological stability and subsequent sustainability of soil ecosystems. Soil micro organisms are crucial role-players in the processes that make energy and nutrients available for recycling in the soil ecosystem. Poor management practices and other negative impacts on soil ecosystems affect both the physical and chemical properties of soil, as well as the functional and structural properties of soil microbial communities. Disturbances of soil ecosystems that impact on the normal functioning of microbial communities are potentially detrimental to soil formation, energy transfers, nutrient cycling, plant reestablishment and long-term stability. In this regard, an extensive overview of soil properties and processes indicated that the use of microbiological and biochemical soil properties, such as microbial biomass, enzymatic activity and the analysis of microbial community structure by the quantification of specific signature lipid biomarkers are useful as indicators of soil ecological stress or restoration properties because they are more responsive to small changes than physical and chemical characteristics. In this study, the relationship between the physical and chemical characteristics and different biological indicators of soil quality in the topsoil covers of seven coal discard sites under rehabilitation in South Africa, as well as three reference sites was investigated. Through the assimilation of basic quantitative data and the assessment of certain physical, chemical and biological properties of the topsoil covers obtained from the various coal discard sites as well as the reference sites, the relative success or progress of rehabilitation and the possible correlation between the biological indicators of soil quality and the establishment of self sustaining vegetation covers was determined. Results from soil physical and chemical analyses and percentage vegetation cover were correlated with the results obtained for the functional and structural diversity of microbial communities at the various sites. All results were investigated through statistical and multivariate analysis and the most prominent physical and chemical parameters that influence the biological and biochemical properties of the soil and possibly the establishment of self-sustainable vegetation cover on these mine-tailing sites were identified. Results obtained from this study indicated no significant difference (p>0.05) between the various discard sites based on conventional microbiological enumeration techniques. However, significant differences (p<0.05) could be observed between the three reference sites. All enzymatic activities assayed for the rehabilitation sites, with the exception of urease and alkaline phosphatase displayed a strong, positive association with the organic carbon content (%C). Ammonium concentration had a weak association with all the enzymes studied and pH only showed a negative association with acid phosphatase activity. A positive association was observed between the viable microbial biomass, vegetation cover and the organic carbon content, ammonium, nitrate and phosphorus concentrations of the soil. The various rehabilitation and reference sites could be differentiated based on the microbial community structure as determined by phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) analysis. It is hypothesised that the microbial community structure of the Hendrina site is not sustainable when classified along an r-K gradient and that the high percentage of vegetation cover and high levels of estimated viable microbial biomass are an artificial reflection of the current management practices being employed at this site. Results obtained during this study, suggest that an absence or low percentage of vegetation cover and associated lower organic matter content of the soil have a significant negative impact on soil biochemical properties (enzymatic activity) as well as microbial population size. Furthermore, prevailing environmental physico-chemical and management characteristics significantly influences the vegetation cover and subsequently the microbial community structure. The results indicate that the microbial ecosystems in the coal discard sites could become more stable and ecologically self-regulating, provided effective management to enhance the organic carbon content of the soil. This could enhance nutrient cycling, resulting in changes of soil structure and eventually an improved soil quality which could facilitate the establishment of self sustaining vegetation cover. Results obtained during this study suggest that a polyphasic assessment of physical and chemical properties; microbial activities by enzymatic analysis; the characterisation of microbial community structure by analysis of phospholipid fatty acids; and the multifactorial analysis of the data obtained can be used as complementary assessment criteria for the evaluation of the trend of rehabilitation of mine tailings and discard sites. Strategic management criteria are recommended based on the soil quality environmental sustainability indices to facilitate the establishment of self sustainable vegetation covers. The contribution of this research to soil ecology is significant with regards to the intensive investigation and explanation of characteristics and processes that drive ecological rehabilitation and determine the quality of the soil environment. The multidisciplinary approach that is proposed could, furthermore, assist in the successful rehabilitation and establishment of self-sustaining vegetation covers at industrially disturbed areas, as well as assist in improving degraded soil quality associated with both intensive and informal agriculture. Additionally, this approach could negate the negative social and environmental impacts frequently associated with these activities. / Thesis (M. Environmental Science)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2004.

Two laboratory incubation studies and a growth room bioassay of forage barley were conducted to investigate nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) mineralization, and nitrous oxide emission from two contrasting agricultural soils amended with anaerobically digested cattle manure (ADM). The ADM is a nutrient-rich co-product from manure-based biogas plants which is applied to cropland at rates used for raw manure since scientific information on nutrient release from ADM is lacking. Application of the separated solids fraction of ADM (SS) reduced nitrous oxide emission but resulted in lower N mineralization compared to raw manure in both soils. Raw manure- and SS- treatments had similar biomass yields and P supply capacities while the application of pelletized SS (PSS) caused net N immobilization, lower P release than manure and SS, and depressed barley yields relative to non-amended (control) soils.