1. The major phospholipids extracted from Bacillus amylolique - faciens were cardiolipin, phosphatidylycerol and phosphatidylethanolamine. 2. The distribution of these phospholipids between the two halves of the cytoplasmic membrane bilayer was studied using phospholipase C ( B. cereus ), phospholipase A2 ( Crotalus ) and the non - penetrating chemical probe trinitrobenzenesulphonic acid ( TNBS ). After treatment of intact protoplasts of B. amylolique - faciens with either phospholipase, approximately 70 % of total membrane phospholipid was hydrolysed ; specifically approximately 90 %, 90 % and 30 % of phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylglycerol and cardiolipin respectively. Under these conditions, protoplasts remained intact and sealed. However, when protoplasts that were permeabilized by cold shock treatment were incubated with either of the phospholipases, up to 80 % of cardiolipin was hydrolysed and phosphatidylglycerol and phosphatidylethanolamine were hydrolysed virtually to completion. In intact cells, 92 % of the phosphatidylethanolamine could be labelled with TNBS under conditions in which the reagent did not penetrate the membrane to any significant extent. 3. These results suggest that 70 % of total phospholipid of this bacillus exists in the outer half of the bilayer. The distribution of phosphatidylethanolamine in this bilayer is highly asymmetric with it being located predominantly in the outer half. The results with phospholipases suggest that the distributions of cardiolipin and phosphatidylglycerol are also asymmetric but independent confirmation or this is required. 4. The fatty acid composition of cells grown at different temperatures was investigated. When cells were grown at 30 ° C, branched - chain saturated fatty acids made up over 80 % of the total fatty acids. Saturated straight - chain fatty acids made up the bulk of the remainder. Less than 1 % of the total fatty acids were unsaturated. Decrease in growth temperature was accompanied by an increase in the ratio of branched to straight - chain fatty acids and a marked increase in the level of unsaturation of branched - chain fatty acids. 5. When cells of this organism, grown at 30 ° C, were cold shocked, viability and ability to secrete extracellular protease were lost. Growth of this organism at lower temperatures or addition of Tween - 80 to cells caused the critical temperature zone for cold shocking to be significantly lowered. These results suggest a direct correlation between membrane fluidity and the susceptibility to cold shock. 6. The role of lipids in the process of extracellular enzyme secretion was studied using cerulenin, an antibiotic known to inhibit fatty acid synthesis in microorganisms. Cerulenin inhibited the secretion of alpha - amylase and protease in washed cell suspensions by 80 % and 75 % respectively over 3 hours. The effect was a general one since secretion of all protein species into the medium was drastically reduced by the antibiotic. At the concentration of cerulenin used ( 100 . µ g / ml ), [ 14C ] - acetate incorporation into cellular lipid was inhibited by approximately 50 % but total cellular protein and RNA synthesis were virtually unaffected. The inhibitory effect of cerulenin on alpha - amylase and protease secretion could be partially reversed if cell suspensions were supplemented with either fatty acids prepared from the lipids extracted from B. amyloliquefaciens, or various individual pure fatty acids. These results suggest that fatty acid synthesis may be required for protein secretion by this organism. 7. Attempts were made to detect precursors to extracellular enzymes either associated with the cells or in the culture medium, employing immunological techniques. These experiments, however, were not successful. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--Department of Biochemistry, 1979.

Thesis (Ph.D. 1979) from the Department of Biochemistry, University of Adelaide.

Biodiesel is one of the most widely used biofuels in the world, due in part to its simplicity of production, compatibility with existing engines, and reduction of green house gas emissions. However, technical difficulties with biodiesel include: (1) the need of highly refined oil for ASTM compliance, (2) incompatibility with the petroleum-diesel pipeline distribution system, and (3) a relatively small inventory of expensive feedstocks. Issues (1) and (2) could be overcome by the production of biofuels using chemical processes associated with petroleum refining. Catalytic lipid cracking could result in green diesel, a fuel chemically similar to conventional diesel but derived from a clean renewable feedstock. The impact of phosphorus poisoning on catalytic cracking of lipids has been studied in this work using both homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts. Catalytic cracking of model lipids was shown to occur in a homogeneous liquid phase with triflic acid, a superacid 100 times more acidic than sulfuric acid. Products obtained from the reaction were heavily oxygenated and generally unsuitable for fuel use, suggesting the need for heterogeneous catalytic cracking. Reaction kinetics show a high linear dependence on Brönsted system acidity, with an overall reaction order of 3. The affect of phosphorus on heterogeneous acid cracking was then studied. Since lipid feedstocks contain small amounts of phospholipids knowledge of the interactions between phospholipids and zeolites is crucial to a system-wide understanding of the lipid cracking process. Phosphorus-containing compounds were used to poison ZSM-5 (a solid zeolite catalyst) in order to simulate the cracking of phospholipids. Model compounds were then cracked over the poisoned zeolite, with differences in product distribution and kinetics based on phosphorus loading recorded. It was shown that phosphorous has a dramatic effect on both conversion and product distribution of cracking reactions. It is believed that phosphorous binds irreversibly to heterogeneous active sites, causing the majority of deactivation. To address the issue of limited feedstock availability, research was also undertaken to find new lipids sources for biofuel use. It was determined that lipids extracted from microorganisms grown in a municipal wastewater treatment system could be suitable. However, any phosphorous must be removed before catalytic cracking of the extracted lipids.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Grain Science and Industry / Praveen V. Vadlani / Microbial lipids derived from oleaginous yeasts are a promising alternative source of edible oils due to the following advantages: no requirement of broad lands; availability of year-round production; and no food versus fuels controversy. Oleaginous yeast has an inherent ability to accumulate lipids inside cells and their lipids are preferable as starting materials in oleo-chemical industries because of their distinct fatty acid composition. Lignocellulosic biomass is a promising substrate to supply carbon sources for oleaginous yeast to produce lipids due to the high content of polysaccharides and their abundancy. Lignocellulosic-based sugar streams, which can be generated via pretreatment and enzymatic hydrolysis, contained diverse monosaccharides and inhibitors. The major objectives of this study were: 1) to develop a novel purification method to generate clean sugar stream using sorghum stalks after acid pretreatment; 2) to optimize fermentation conditions for Trichosporon oleaginosus to achieve high yields and productivity of microbial lipids using lignocellulosic hydrolysates; 3) to investigate the potentials of sorghum stalks and switchgrass as feedstocks for microbial lipid production using oleaginous yeast strains, such as T. oleaginosus, Lipomyces starkeyi, and Cryptococcus albidus; 4) to develop an integrated process of corn bran based-microbial lipids production using T. oleaginosus; and 5) to develop bioconversion process for high yields of lipids from switchgrass using engineered Escherichia coli. In our investigation, major inhibitory compounds of lignocellulosic hydrolysates induced by pretreatment were acetic acid, formic acid, hydroxymethyl furfural (HMF) and furfural. The activated charcoal was effective in removing hydrophobic compounds from sorghum stalk hydrolysates. Resin mixtures containing cationic exchangers and anionic exchangers in 7:3 ratio at pH 2.7 completely removed HMF, acetic acid, and formic acid from sorghum stalk hydrolysates. T. oleaginosus was a robust yeast strain for lipid production. In the nitrogen-limited synthetic media, total 22 g/L of lipid titers were achieved by T. oleaginosus with a lipid content of 76% (w/w). In addition, T. oleaginosus efficiently produced microbial lipids from lignocellulosic biomass hydrolysates. The highest lipid titers of 13 g/L lipids were achieved by T. oleaginosus using sorghum stalk hydrolysates with a lipid content of 60% (w/w). L. starkeyi and C. albidus also successfully produced microbial lipids using lignocellulosic hydrolysate with a lipid content of 40% (w/w). Furthermore, corn bran was a promising feedstock for microbial lipid production. The highest sugar yields of 0.53 g/g were achieved from corn bran at the pretreatment condition of 1% acid and 5% solid loading. Microbial lipids were successfully produced from corn bran hydrolysates by T. oleaginosus with lipid yields of 216 mg/g. Engineered E. coli also effectively produced lipids using switchgrass as feedstocks. E. coli ML103 pXZ18Z produced a total of 3.3 g/L free fatty acids with a yield of 0.23 g/g. The overall yield of free fatty acids was 0.12 g/g of raw switchgrass and it was 51 % of the maximum theoretical yield. This study provided useful strategies for the development of sustainable bioconversion processes for microbial lipids from renewable biomass and demonstrated the economic viability of a lignocellulosic based-biorefinery.

Orientador: Francisco Maugeri Filho / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia de Alimentos / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-17T21:11:49Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 HartwigDuarte_Susan_M.pdf: 674129 bytes, checksum: c92dfd6d6a83ac8b06c49fff054a942a (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011 / Resumo: Os biocombustíveis, como o biodiesel, representam uma alternativa renovável e ambientalmente segura aos combustíveis fósseis. Sua produção encontra-se em crescimento acelerado, gerando como conseqüência, grande quantidade de glicerol, principal co-produto do processo. A utilização do glicerol proveniente da fabricação do biodiesel como substrato para obtenção de produtos biotecnológicos é uma alternativa de disposição adequada deste co-produto. Lipídeos microbianos podem ser empregados como substitutos de fontes oleaginosas utilizadas como matéria-prima para a produção do biodiesel, reduzindo seu custo de produção e tornando o processo sustentável. Tendo em vista o estudo de leveduras silvestres isoladas de biomas brasileiros, o objetivo deste trabalho foi aproveitar o glicerol residual do biodiesel como fonte de carbono no cultivo desses micro-organismos para a produção de lipídeo microbiano. Cinco leveduras foram pré-selecionadas, pela técnica de coloração com Sudan Black B, como potenciais produtoras de lipídeos: LEB-M3, LEB-AAN1, LEB-AQ5, LEB-AAI4 e LEB-AJ10. Essas leveduras foram cultivadas em glicerol puro e glicerol bruto acompanhando o crescimento celular e consumo de glicerol ao longo do cultivo e ao final os lipídeos. A levedura LEBM3, isolada do Pantanal, atingiu em 192 horas de cultivo 11,86 ± 0,08 e 16,12 ± 0,91 g/L de biomassa e rendimentos de lipídeo de 7,57 ± 0,19 e 33,67 ± 4,67% para o glicerol puro e glicerol bruto, respectivamente. Apresentou um conteúdo de lipídeos de 56,58 ± 5,62% em relação a massa celular (base seca) para o cultivo em glicerol do biodiesel destacando-se entre as demais, tendo sido selecionada através de teste de Tukey, e genéticamente identificada como Candida sp. O perfil lipídico mostrou o predomínio do ácido oléico (C18:1) para o cultivo em glicerol puro, 57,35% e ácido linoléico (C18:2) para o cultivo em glicerol bruto com 46,0%. A influência das condições do meio de cultivo da levedura LEB-M3 na produção de lipídeos foi investigada através de um delineamento Plackett-Burman, destacando-se a temperatura como uma das variáveis mais relevantes. Assim, foi feito o estudo da influência da temperatura na produção de lipídeos e perfil de ácidos graxos. A concentração de lipídeos para a temperatura de 23°C foi significativamente maior, e no perfil de ácidos graxos houve o predomínio de C18:2, assim como para as demais temperaturas, com quantidade significativa de ácido gama linolênico (C18:3) / Abstract: Biofuels such as biodiesel, are a renewable and environmentally safe alternative to fossil fuels. Their production is growing rapidly, leading as a consequence, to large amounts of glycerol, the main co-product generated during the process. The use of glycerol from the manufacture of biodiesel as a substrate for biotechnology products is an alternative to proper disposal of this co-product. Microbial lipids can be used as substitutes for oil sources used as raw material for biodiesel production, reducing their cost of production and making the process sustainable. Considering the study of wild yeasts isolated from different Brazilian biomes, the objective was to utilize the residual glycerol from biodiesel as a carbon source in the cultivation of these microorganisms for the production of microbial lipids. Five yeast strains were pre-selected by the Sudan Black B staining method as potential producers of lipids: LEB-M3, LEB-AAN1, LEB-AQ5, LEB-AAI4 and LEB-AJ10. These yeasts were grown in pure glycerol and crude glycerol accompanying cell growth and glycerol consumption during the cultivation and lipids at the end of fermentation. The strain LEB-M3, isolated from the Pantanal, reached in 192 hours of culture 11,86 ± 0,08 g/L and 16,12 ± 0,91 g/L of biomass and lipid yields 7,57 ± 0,19 e 33,67 ± 4,67% for pure glycerol and crude glycerol, respectively. The lipid content of the cells was 56,58 ± 5,62% (dry weigh basis) for the cultivation on biodiesel glycerol selected among the others, according to the Tukey test, and genetically identified by Candida sp. The lipid profile showed a predominance of oleic acid (C18:1) for grows in pure glycerol, 57,03% and linoleic acid (C18:2) for cultivation in crude glycerol, 44,62%. The influence of environmental conditions for cultivation of LEB-M3 yeast in the production of lipids was investigated using a Plackett-Burman factorial design where it was shown the temperature as one of the most important variables. Therefore a experimental set was carried out in order to study the influence of temperature on the production of lipids and fatty acid profile. The concentration of lipids in a temperature of 23°C was significantly higher and fatty acid profile was more distributed, with a predominance of C18:2 as well as for the other temperatures, with substantial amounts of gamma linolenic acid (C18:3) / Mestrado / Engenharia de Alimentos / Mestre em Engenharia de Alimentos

Orientador: Telma Teixeira Franco / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Química / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-25T00:32:21Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Anschau_Andreia_D.pdf: 2032545 bytes, checksum: 8d4ec316020e160cada0e585617e1659 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014 / Resumo: Neste trabalho foram desenvolvidos estudos visando o estabelecimento de um processo de produção de lipídeos microbianos a partir de fontes renováveis, particularmente xilose, carboidrato derivado do processo de hidrólise de bagaço de cana-de-açúcar. Foi utilizada a levedura oleaginosa Lipomyces starkeyi DSM 70296, previamente selecionada no Laboratório de Engenharia Bioquímica, Biorefino e Produtos de Origem Renovável (LEBBPOR). A partir dos resultados preliminares em frascos agitados, partiu-se para estudos de batelada alimentada em biorreator (1,3 a 3L). Foram estudadas diferentes estratégias de alimentação, sendo que em batelada alimentada repetida, foram encontradas as maiores concentrações de células (85,4 g/L) e de lipídeos (41,8 g/L). Posteriormente foram estudados modos de operação em processos contínuos em meio sintético e meio contento o hidrolisado hemicelulósico (H-H). As maiores produtividades de células (0,443 g/g) e de lipídeos (0,236 g/g) foram encontradas em cultivo contínuo a 0,03h-1. Na vazão específica de alimentação de 0,06 h-1 foram obtidas as maiores produtividades de células (0,600 g/L.h) e de lipídeos (0.288 g/L.h). Análises de cromatografia em fase gasosa dos diferentes cultivos feitos revelaram que os principais constituintes deste complexo são os ácidos graxos de cadeia longa, como o ácido palmítico (C16:0), ácido esteárico (C18:0), ácido oleico (C18:1) e ácido linoleico. Foi estimado o número de cetano em torno de 61, muito próximo do biodiesel de palma. Também foram feitos estudos de balanço de massa e de energia em cultivo batelada alimentada utilizando somente xilose como fonte de carbono. O valor de calor de combustão (Qc) de 25,7 kJ/g obtido após 142 h de cultivo representa aproximadamente 56% do conteúdo energético do óleo diesel (45,4 kJ/g), indicando o potencial da L. starkeyi para biodiesel. Cultivos contínuos subsequentes foram feitos para a compreensão do processo de acúmulo de lipídeos, utilizando a ferramenta estatística de reconciliação de dados para melhorar os dados experimentais obtidos em quimiostato, reduzindo os erros experimentais para posterior cálculo de análise de fluxos metabólicos (MFA). Nesse sentido, os lipídeos produzidos por L. starkeyi apresentam relevante importância do ponto de vista acadêmico e industrial, podendo ser utilizados como matéria-prima para biodiesel e indústria oleoquímica / Abstract: Studies attempting the establishment of a microbial lipid production process from renewable resources, mainly xylose, were developed. This pentose, obtained from sugar cane bagasse hydrolysis. The oleaginous yeast Lipomyces starkeyi DSM 70296, previously selected at the Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering, Biorefining and Products from Renewable Sources (LEBBPOR), was used throughout this thesis. After preliminary studies in shake flasks, we started fed-batch studies in fermentor (1.3 to 3L). Among the strategies studied, the highest cell mass and lipid concentrations reached up to 85.4 and 41.8 g/L, respectively, when repeated fed?batch strategy was applied. Subsequently, continuous processes were studied in synthetic medium and media containing hemicellulosic hydrolysate (H-H). The highest overall cell mass (0.443 g/g) and lipid yields (0.236 g/g) were achieved at dilution rate of 0.03 h-1. At dilution rate of 0.06 h-1, were obtained the highest productivities of cell mass (0.600 g/L.h) and lipids (0.288 g/L.h). Gas chromatography of esterified lipids revealed that the major constituents of this complex are long-chain fatty acids, such as palmitic acid (C16:0), stearic acid (C18:0), oleic acid (C18:1), and linoleic acid (C18:2) with an estimated cetane (around 61) very close to the palm biodiesel. Also have been studies of mass and energy balances from fed-batch cultivation using xylose as sole carbon source. The combustion heat (Qc) value 25.7 (kJ/g) obtained after 142 h of fed-batch cultivation, represents approximately 56% of the energy content of diesel oil (45.4 kJ/g), indicating the potential of L. starkeyi for biodiesel. Continuous cultures were made subsequently to understanding the process of lipid accumulation using a statistical tool for data reconciliation was used to improve the experimental data obtained in chemostat culture reducing the experimental errors for subsequent calculation of metabolic flux analysis (MFA). In this sense, lipids produced by L. starkeyi have relevant importance of academic and industrial point of view, as feedstock for biodiesel and oleochemical industry applications / Doutorado / Processos em Tecnologia Química / Doutora em Engenharia Quimica

Orientador: Francisco Maugeri Filho / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia de Alimentos / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-27T13:11:06Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 HartwigDuarte_Susan_D.pdf: 24431149 bytes, checksum: c5a52419e7e78c24bfe96084aaeaa744 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015 / Resumo: A constante busca por fontes alternativas de energia tem estimulado o mercado mundial de combustíveis limpos. Tendo em vista este cenário, o objetivo desta tese foi estudar a produção de lipídeos, pela levedura oleaginosa 'Candida sp'. LEB-M3 cultivada em glicerol bruto e o processo de recuperação lipídica para aplicação na síntese enzimática de biodiesel. Durante os cultivos em glicerol bruto e diferentes fontes de nitrogênio, a levedura apresentou conteúdo lipídico 30,8% (m/m) e concentração lipídica de 3,09 g/L, em relação carbono/nitrogênio de 90. As condições de menor agitação e aeração em biorreator (200 rpm e 0,5 vvm) favoreceram a formação de ácidos graxos que conferem melhores parâmetros de qualidade do biodiesel. Entre as técnicas de ruptura estudadas, a abrasão por cisalhamento com pérolas de vidro apresentou alta recuperação lipídica (125%), quando comparada à técnica padrão estudada. A extração com CO2 supercrítico indicou ser um método de extração de lipídeos microbianos promissor, porém é mais seletivo aos compostos apolares e por isso apresentou rendimento global máximo de 6,17%. A reação de síntese de biodiesel com lipídeo microbiano e metanol em meio reacional com n-hexano e lipase recombinante de 'Rhizopus oryzae' (rROL) imobilizada como catalisador da reação, apresentou rendimento de metil ésteres de ácidos graxos (FAMEs) de 40,6%. Além disso, foram realizadas 5 reutilizações da enzima, com perda máxima de 30% no rendimento de FAMEs. O estudo da produção e recuperação lipídica da levedura' Candida sp'. LEB-M3 possibilitou a síntese enzimática de biodiesel, contribuindo assim para o desenvolvimento sustentável da cadeia produtiva do biodiesel / Abstract: The constant search for alternative energy sources has stimulated the global market of clean fuels. In view of this scenario, the goal of this thesis was to study the production of lipids by oleaginous yeast 'Candida sp'. LEB-M3 grown in crude glycerol and the lipid recovery process for use in biodiesel enzymatic synthesis. During the cultivation in crude glycerol and different nitrogen sources, the lipid content of the yeast showed 30.8% (w/w) and lipid concentration of 3.09 g/L, for carbon/nitrogen ratiof of 90. The conditions of less agitation and aeration in the bioreactor (200 rpm and 0.5 vvm) favored the formation of fatty acids that give best biodiesel quality parameters. Among the cell disruption techniques studied, abrasion by shearing with glass beads showed higher lipid recovery (125%) compared to the standard technique studied. The extraction with supercritical CO2 showed to be a promising method of microbial lipid extraction, but is more selective to non-polar compounds and therefore presented the maximum overall yield of 6.17%. The biodiesel synthesis reaction with the microbial lipid and methanol in the reaction medium with n-hexane and recombinant 'Rhizopus oryzae' (rROL) immobilized catalyst of the reaction, showed a yield of 40.6% of fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs). In addition, there were 5 reuses of enzyme, with a maximum loss of 30% FAMEs yield. The study of lipid production and lipid recovery of the yeast 'Candida sp'. LEB-M3 enabled the enzymatic synthesis of biodiesel, thus contributing to the sustainable development of the biodiesel production chain / Doutorado / Engenharia de Alimentos / Doutora em Engenharia de Alimentos

Une part importante de la production mondiale de vecteurs énergétiques et de produits chimiques provient de la raffinerie de combustibles fossiles. En raison de l'augmentation du prix du pétrole et de son impact environnemental, la recherche de solutions alternatives, écologiques et économiques constitue l’un des enjeux de notre siècle. Le remplacement du pétrole par de la biomasse en tant que matière première pour la production de carburants et de produits chimiques constitue la force motrice dans le développement de complexes de bioraffinerie.Cette étude fait partie d’un projet de bioraffinerie visant la valorisation de biomasse lignocellulosique par la production d’hydrogène et de lipides microbiens précurseurs de biodiesel. Ce travail se concentre en particulier sur l’étape de production de biomasse et de lipides par la levure oléagineuse Cryptococcus curvatus à partir d’acides gras volatils (AGVs) synthétisés au cours de la fermentation anaérobie productrice d’hydrogène. Les cultures ont dans un premier temps été réalisées à partir d’un substrat modèle, l’acétate, en fed-batch et en continu. La détermination de l’influence de différents paramètres opératoires sur la production de biomasse et de lipides à partir d’acétate a permis de mettre au point des cultures en fed-batch dont les cinétiques, les productivités et les rendements finaux étaient compétitifs avec ceux rapportés dans la littérature pour des cultures sur substrats simples. Un modèle de croissance et de production de lipides a été construit à partir de ces données afin de prédire le comportement de la souche lors de cultures continues, permettant d’obtenir des productivités en lipides et en biomasse élevées. Enfin, des cultures ont été menées à partir d’AGVs issus de surnageant de fermentation anaérobie. Les résultats ont confirmé la croissance de ces levures sur ce substrat particulier et la production de lipides dont la composition en acides gras estérifiés était compatible avec une utilisation comme biodiesel. / A great part of the global production of energy vectors and chemicals comes from fossil fuels refinery. Because of the increase in oil price and their environmental impacts, the search for alternative, ecological and economic solutions is a current challenge. The replacement of oil with biomass as raw material for the production of fuels and chemicals is the driving force for the development of biorefinery complexes.This study is part of a project aiming at the biorefinery of lignocellulosic biomass for hydrogen and microbial lipids as biodiesel precursors. This work focuses on the biomass and lipids production step by the oleaginous yeast Cryptococcus curvatus using volatile fatty acids (VFAs) as carbon sources, which are synthesized during the anaerobic fermentation step. Yeast cultures have initially been realized using a model substrate, acetate, and fed-batch and continuous modes. The determination of the influence of different operating parameters on the biomass and lipids production led to the development of fed-batch cultures which kinetics, productivities and yields were competitive with those reported in the literature for cultures on simple substrates. A growth and lipid production model was built from these data to predict the behavior of the strain during continuous cultures and to obtain high lipid and biomass productivities. Finally, cultures were conducted using VFAs from anaerobic fermentation supernatant. The results confirmed the growth of these yeasts on this particular substrate and the production of lipids which composition was compatible with use as biodiesel.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--Mississippi State University. Dave C. Swalm School of Chemical Engineering. / Title from title screen. Includes bibliographical references.

Μελετήθηκε ο μεταβολισμός της γλυκερόλης στη ζύμη Yarrowia lipolytica ACA–DC 50109 με έμφαση στη μετατροπή της σε λιπίδια και κιτρικό οξύ, μεταβολικά προϊόντα που παρουσιάζουν ιδιαίτερο ενδιαφέρον για τη βιοτεχνολογία. Σε καλλιέργειες που πραγματοποιήθηκαν σε βιοαντιδραστήρα διαλείποντος έργου, επί πολλαπλώς περιοριστικού μέσου, διαπιστώθηκε η ύπαρξη τριών διακριτών φάσεων αύξησης που χαρακτηρίζονται από ιδιαίτερα μορφολογικά και βιοχημικά χαρακτηριστικά: η φάση βιοσύνθεσης κυτταρικής μάζας (κατά την οποία συντέθηκαν 4–4,5 g/l βιομάζας), η ελαιογόνος φάση (κατά την οποία πραγματοποιήθηκε συσσώρευση λιπιδίων 20–22% wt/wt επί ξηρής βιομάζας, 90% wt/wt των οποίων ήταν ουδέτερα) και η φάση παραγωγής κιτρικού οξέος (κατά την οποία εκκρίθηκαν στο περιβάλλον της αύξησης 14–30 g/l κιτρικού οξέος). Κατά τη διάρκεια των ανωτέρω φάσεων η ζύμη διήλθε από διάφορα μορφολογικά στάδια: μικρού μήκους αληθή μυκήλια και ψευδομυκήλια που κυριάρχησαν των κυττάρων ζύμης κατά τη φάση βιοσύνθεσης κυτταρικής μάζας, ευμεγέθη κύτταρα κατά τη φάση της ελαιογένεσης και μικρού μεγέθους κύτταρα ζύμης κατά τη φάση παραγωγής κιτρικού οξέος. Η γλυκερόλη διαπερνά την κυτταροπλασματική μεμβράνη με διευκολυνόμενη διάχυση και καταβολίζεται μέσω των αντιδράσεων της κινάσης της γλυκερόλης – GK και της NAD+ εξαρτώμενης αφυδρογονάσης της 3–P–γλυκερόλης. Την υψηλή ενεργότητα της NAD+ εξαρτώμενης ισοκιτρικής αφυδρογονάσης (NAD+–ICDH) κατά τη διάρκεια της φάσης βιοσύνθεσης κυτταρικής μάζας διαδέχθηκε σημαντική πτώση της ενεργότητάς της, επάγοντας τη λιπογένεση. Απρόσμενη αποδόμηση των αποθεματικών (ουδέτερων) λιπιδίων και σημαντική βιοσύνθεση γλυκολιπιδίων, σφιγγολιπιδίων και φωσφολιπιδίων – Ρ παρατηρήθηκε κατά τη διάρκεια της φάσης παραγωγής κιτρικού οξέος, φάση κατά την οποία η ενεργότητα της GK είχε μειωθεί σημαντικά ενώ η ενεργότητα της NAD+–ICDH είχε σχεδόν μηδενιστεί. Το ελαϊκό οξύ ήταν το κυριότερο λιπαρό οξύ ενώ η φωσφατιδυλχολίνη – PC το κύριο Ρ. Σε συνεχές σύστημα καλλιέργειας επί θρεπτικού υλικού περιοριστικού σε άζωτο, βιοσυντέθηκαν περιορισμένες μόνο ποσότητες λιπιδίων (~10% wt/wt, επί της ξηρής βιομάζας), γεγονός που μπορεί αποδοθεί στο ότι δεν υπήρχε μια περιοχή του ειδικού ρυθμού αραίωσης (D, h–1) στην οποία τα ένζυμα – κλειδιά που εμπλέκονται στη λιπογένεση (όπως η ΑΤΡ:κιτρική λυάση – ATP:CL και το μηλικό ένζυμο – ME) να παρουσιάζουν συγχρόνως υψηλές ενεργότητες, ενώ η ενεργότητα της NAD+–ICDH μειώθηκε, όχι όμως σημαντικά, στους χαμηλούς D. Η ενεργότητα της ATP:CL χαρακτηρίστηκε από υψηλές τιμές (60–300 Units/mg DW) σε D 0,033 h–1 ενώ οι μέγιστες τιμές ενεργότητας του ME (650 Units/mg DW) εμφανίστηκαν σε D=0,104 h–1. Τα λιπίδια της ζύμης ήταν περισσότερο ακόρεστα σε ενδιάμεσες τιμές D. Σε όλους τους D η φωσφατιδυλαιθανολαμίνη – PE, η φωσφατιδυλινοσιτόλη – PI και η PC αντιπροσωπεύουν τις κυριότερες κλάσεις των Ρ. Όσον αφορά τη μορφολογία της ζύμης, βρέθηκε ότι σε D<0,055 h–1 επικρατούσαν αληθή μυκήλια και ψευδομυκήλια ενώ σε D 0,055 h–1 παρατηρήθηκαν μόνο κύτταρα ζύμης. Σε πειράματα που πραγματοποιήθηκαν επί θρεπτικού υλικού περιοριστικού σε άζωτο, σε D=0,026 h–1, σε διαφορετικές συγκεντρώσεις διαλυμένου οξυγόνου – DO παρατηρήθηκε αυξημένο ποσοστό του κλάσματος των Ρ επί των ολικών λιπιδίων στις ακραίες σε τιμές DO ( 70% και 7%). Ανεξάρτητα των τιμών DO η PC ήταν η κλάση με το μεγαλύτερο ποσοστό, ακολουθούμενη από την PI και PE. Ειδικότερα το ποσοστό της ΡΕ παρουσιάστηκε ιδιαίτερα αυξημένο σε ενδιάμεσες τιμές DO (20% και 30%). Σε DΟ 50% επικρατούσαν αληθή μυκήλια και ψευδομυκήλια ενώ σε DΟ 50% εμφανίστηκαν στην καλλιέργεια περισσότερα κύτταρα ζύμης. Σε πειράματα που πραγματοποιήθηκαν σε D=0,026 h–1 βρέθηκε ότι ο περιορισμός της αύξησης από ιχνοστοιχεία όπως το μαγνήσιο και το ασβέστιο τα οποία εμπλέκονται σε πολλαπλές κυτταρικές λειτουργίες, είχαν δυσμενή επίδραση στη φυσιολογία της ζύμης, ωστόσο η σύσταση των λιπιδίων σε λιπαρά οξέα δεν επηρεάστηκε από τη φύση του περιοριστικού για την αύξηση παράγοντα. Η παρούσα διδακτορική διατριβή φιλοδοξεί να συμβάλει στη μελέτη της φυσιολογίας των ελαιογόνων μικροοργανισμών και στη χρήση της γλυκερόλης ως υποστρώματος σε μελλοντικές βιοτεχνολογικές εφαρμογές. / In this thesis the metabolism of glycerol in Yarrowia lipolytica ACA–DC 50109, with emphasis on glycerol conversion into value–added biotechnological products, such as single cell oils and citric acid, was studied. The growth of Y. lipolytica was studied in bioreactor batch cultures in multiple limited medium and three distinct phases were identified during growth cycle. In each phase, yeast cells were characterized by specific morphological and biochemical features: biomass formation phase (in which 4–4.5 g/l of biomass were synthesized), lipogenic phase (in which 20–22% lipids wt/wt in dry weight were accumulated in biomass, containing 90% wt/wt neutral lipids) and citric acid production phase (in which 14–30 g/l of citric acid were secreted in the growth environment). Distinct cellular forms of Y. lipolytica were developed during the above phases: in biomass formation phase short true mycelia and pseudo–mycelia were predominant while a few yeast–like cells were observed, in lipogenic phase large obese cells were predominant and in citric acid production phase cells size was diminished. Glycerol passes into the microbial cell by facilitated diffusion. Y. lipolytica successfully converts glycerol via phosphorylation pathway, in which glycerol kinase (GK) and glycerol–3–P–dehydrogenase are implicated. Though high activity of NAD+ dependent isocitric dehydrogenase (NAD+–ICDH) was detected during biomass formation phase, this activity was significantly decreased afterwards inducing lipogenesis. Surprisingly, storage (neutral) lipid turnover and synthesis of glycolipids, sphingolipids and phospholipids – Ρ simultaneously occurred with citric acid production, and happened when GK activity was considerably reduced and NAD+–ICDH activity was minimised. Oleic acid was the major fatty acid in all lipid fractions and phosphatidylcholine – PC was the main Ρ. In continuous culture in nitrogen limited medium Y. lipolytica accumulated low quantities of lipids (~10% w/w, in dry weight), maybe due to the fact that there was not a region of specific dilution rate (D, h–1) in which the key–enzymes that are implicated in lipogenesis (i.e. ΑΤΡ:citrate lyase – ATP:CL and malic enzyme – ME) presented simultaneously high activity while NAD+–ICDH activity was insignificantly decreased in low D. ATP:CL presented high activity (60–300 Units/mg DW) in D 0,033 h–1 while ME presented maximum activity (650 Units/mg DW) in D=0,104 h–1. Lipids were more unsaturated in intermediate D values while phosphatidylethanolamine – PE, phosphatidylinositol – PI and PC are the main Ρ classes. As far as the morphology is concerned, in D<0,055 h–1 short true mycelia and pseudo–mycelia were predominant in culture medium while in D 0,055 h–1 only yeast cells were observed. In experiments performed in nitrogen limited medium in D=0,026 h–1 in different dissolved oxygen – DO concentrations, it was found that in extreme DO values ( 70% and 7%) the percentage of P was increased. Independently the DO concentration PC was the main class followed by PI and PE. The morphology of Y. lipolytica was influenced by the different concentration of DO and it was observed that in DΟ 50% short true mycelia and pseudo–mycelia were predominant in culture medium while in DΟ 50% more yeast cells were appeared. In experiments performed in D=0,026 h–1, it was found that the absence of micronutrients from the growth medium, i.e. magnesium and calcium that are implicated in multiple cellular functions, had severe effects in yeast physiology, while the fatty acid composition of cellular lipids was not affected by the nature of the growth limiting factor. The present thesis aspires to contribute in the study of oleaginous microorganisms’ physiology and in use of glycerol as substrate in future biotechnological applications.