This thesis offers the first detailed palaeoenvironmental analysis of wetland areas within sub-Arctic enclosed homefield’s. Significance of meadows were previously mentioned only briefly in the literature, suggesting influences in settlement site selection as well as importance in quality fodder production, producing up to two thirds of total hay resources in a somewhat marginal agricultural landscape. Given the importance of hay resources in Iceland it seems unusual these areas have received so little attention to date, despite extensive research on all other aspects of the Norse farm system. The organic sediments within the meadows, given their development in-situ over extended time periods, have the ability to record aspects of the intimate relationship between societal and environmental change, and so in a robust and holistic way our methods set integrates radiocarbon measurement, tephrochronology, palynology and thin section micromorphology from the same core; reflecting these findings against existing paleoclimate and archaeological site data. This combined application of the core techniques – palynology and soil micromorphology, has proven successful in creating effective human ecodynamic records from each of the study farms. Records obtained from the three farm sites in northwest and northern Iceland exposed the varying importance and differing utilisation of these wetland areas. Meadows would appear to have played an import role in choice of settlement site across northern Iceland, through the provision of open areas, and additional and immediately available fodder resources at settlement, in a landscape dominated by dense scrub. Meadows were found to have been in continuous use, albeit at varying levels of intensity, from settlement to the present day. In this respect the semi-natural resources are found to be remarkably resilient, demonstrating little alterations to their composition following severe climatic downturns, including that of the Little Ice Age, and volcanic eruption. Acting as a robust resource and safety buffer for settlements, contributing to fodder resources where reliability of other resources is jeopardised by environmental conditions. Research in the more marginal northwest peninsula provides the first evidence of artificially created wet meadows in Iceland, developed to give sustained fodder production for over-wintering livestock in an environment that inherently had a short growing season and lacked soil fertility. A further example of the nuanced land management practices adopted in the agriculturally fragile farmscapes of the Norse North Atlantic. The findings of the thesis have wider implications for understanding the emergence of resilient and sustainable communities in agriculturally marginal environments; to this end there remains many opportunities to use palaeoenvironmental research to study ecosystem responses to natural and anthropogenic stresses, giving us a better understanding of capacities to withstand future stresses.

Shetland boasts exceptionally well-preserved, but largely overlooked, field systems spanning a period of approximately 4000 years (Neolithic/Bronze Age – Viking/Norse). These have the potential to vastly increase our understanding of past agricultural practices and life styles. This study uses topographical survey, Shape Analysis, GIS, soil survey and micromorphology to answer questions relating to their location, form and function/management, pioneering the use of new tools and testing current models. An holistic landscape approach to the field systems is developed and tested against a multi-period site. Previously unknown types and periods of field systems are identified through survey and shape analysis, tools demonstrated to be valuable in refining the emerging model of field classification. GIS has illuminated pre-, during and post- construction factors influencing boundary form. New insights into location arise from the survey and GIS. Soils work has demonstrated that existing models of soil management over-simplify a complex situation, that thin acidic soils retain cultural information and that accretion was important to the sustainability of these peaty soils. While soils were sustainable over extended periods, the cultural inheritance of managed land appears to be limited. This thesis therefore presents the most holistic and comprehensive understanding of Shetland field systems which has so far been attempted.

As crostas são o resultado da degradação da estrutura superficial dos solos, favorecem a erosão e a degradação ambiental dos solos. Este estudo avaloiu a dinâmica da formação de crostas superficiais e as consequencias sobre a porosidade, condutividade hidráulica (K), retenção de água, densidade (Ds) e a rugosidade de um Argissolo Vermelho amarelo conduzido com diferentes sistemas de preparo do solo e aplicação de lâminas de chuva simulada. Avaliou-se também, através de um experimento em laboratório, os processos envolvidos na quebra dos agregados, sob chuvas simuladas. O experimento foi conduzido, nos anos de 2009 e 2010. Em parcelas de 15 x 30 m foram conduzidos os diferentes preparos do solo: preparo convencional (PC), preparo reduzido (PR) e sem preparo (SP). Dentro das parcelas instalou-se micro-parcelas de 1m x 1m, onde foram aplicadas diferentes lâminas de chuva simulada (0, 27, 54 e 80 mm) com intensidade de 80 mm h-1. Foram realizadas coletas de dados de rugosidade, medidas de K, coleta de amostras indeformadas de solo para análise da porosidade e confecção de lâminas delgadas, e também anéis cilíndricos para curva de retenção de água (CRA) e Ds do solo. No experimento de laboratório, utilizou-se dois solos (siltoso e argiloso) e duas classe de agregados (1-3 e 3-5 mm). Os agregados foram submetidos a diferentes chuvas simuladas (28mmh-1 + EC forte; 28mmh-1 + EC fraca; 90mmh-1 + EC forte; 90mmh-1 + EC fraca) e após avaliou-se o diâmetro médio ponderado dos agregados (DMP). A dinâmica da formação de crostas ocorreu de maneira diferenciada em ambos os sistemas de preparo. Nos sistemas de PC e PR a maior redução da porosidade, pelo efeito da chuva aplicada, ocorreu na camada da crosta e no sistema SP na camada da subcrosta. A camada da crosta foi responsável pela redução da porosidade e K, e aumento da Ds nos sistemas PC e PR. As maiores umidades volumétricas observadas nas CRA ocorreram no sistema de PR e as menores no PC e não demonstraram evolução entre as chuvas aplicadas. A rugosidade superficial do solo variou em função dos sistemas de preparo realizados. Os sistemas conservacionistas (PR e SP) apresentaram maior rugosidade no primeiro ano, no segundo ano a maior rugosidade foi observada no sistema SP. O PC demonstrou nos dois anos estudados a mesma tendência, em função das chuvas aplicadas, inicialmente ocorreu um aumento na rugosidade até uma chuva máxima diminuindo em seguida. No experimento em laboratório, as maiores reduções no DMP ocorreram até a lâmina de 3 e 2 mm para o solo argiloso e siltoso, respectivamente. Nas quantidades iniciais de chuva (lâminas iniciais) a intensidade foi determinante na redução do DMP, com o aumento da quantidade de chuva a energia cinética (EC) passou a influenciar a redução do DMP. A intensidade de 28 mm h-1 promoveu as maiores reduções do DMP possivelmente pelo maior tempo de exposição dos agregados ao molhamento. / The crusts are the result of degradation of the surface structure of the soil, favoring erosion and environmental degradation of soils. This study evaluated the dynamics of the develop surface crusts and its consequences on the porosity, hydraulic conductivity (K), water retention, bulk density (Ds) and the roughness of a Typic Hapludult conducted with different systems of tillage and application of sheets simulated rainfall. Was also evaluated through the an laboratory experiment, the processes involved in the breakdown of aggregates under simulated rainfall. The experiment was conducted in the years 2009 and 2010. In plots of 15 x 30 m were installed the soil tillage: conventional tillage (CT), reduced tillage (RT) and no-tillage (NT). Inside of the plots was installed micro-plots of 1m x 1m, which were applied different sheets of simulated rainfall (0, 27, 54 and 80 mm) with intensity of 80 mm h-1. Roughness data, K measurements, sampling of undisturbed soil samples for porosity analysis and preparation of thin sections, and also cylindrical rings for water retention curve (SWRC) and Ds, were collected. In the laboratory experiment two soils (Silt Loam and Clay Loam) and two aggregate classes (1-3 and 3-5 mm) were used. The aggregates were submitted to different simulated rainfall (28mmh-1 + KE strong; 28mmh-1 + KE weak; 90mmh-1 + KE strong; 90mmh-1 + KE weak) and after the mean weight diameter (MWD) was evaluated. The dynamics of crust formation occurred differently in both tillage systems. In the CT and RT systems the major reduction of the porosity, by effect of the applied rainfall, occurred in the crust layer and in the NT system occurred in the subcrosta layer. Crust formation was responsible for reducing the porosity and K, and increasing Ds, in RT and CT systems. The higher volumetric moisture contents observed in CRA occurred in the PR system and the lowest in CT. The CRA did not show changes between the applied rainfall. The surface roughness of the soil varied in relation to the tillage systems. RT and NT systems showed a higher roughness in the first year during the second year a higher roughness was observed in the NT system. The CT in the two years studied showed the same trend of evolution according to of applied rainfall, initially there was an increase in roughness up to a maximum rain and then decrease. In the laboratory experiment, the largest DMP reductions occurred in the 3 and 2 mm rainfall for the Silt Loam and Clay Loam soils, respectively. In the initial amounts of rainfall, the intensity was determinant in the MWD reduction. With the increase in the amount of rainfall, the kinetic energy influences the MWD reduction. The intensity of 28 mm h-1 produced the greatest reductions in DMP, possibly due to the longer exposure of the aggregates to wetting.

As crostas são o resultado da degradação da estrutura superficial dos solos, favorecem a erosão e a degradação ambiental dos solos. Este estudo avaloiu a dinâmica da formação de crostas superficiais e as consequencias sobre a porosidade, condutividade hidráulica (K), retenção de água, densidade (Ds) e a rugosidade de um Argissolo Vermelho amarelo conduzido com diferentes sistemas de preparo do solo e aplicação de lâminas de chuva simulada. Avaliou-se também, através de um experimento em laboratório, os processos envolvidos na quebra dos agregados, sob chuvas simuladas. O experimento foi conduzido, nos anos de 2009 e 2010. Em parcelas de 15 x 30 m foram conduzidos os diferentes preparos do solo: preparo convencional (PC), preparo reduzido (PR) e sem preparo (SP). Dentro das parcelas instalou-se micro-parcelas de 1m x 1m, onde foram aplicadas diferentes lâminas de chuva simulada (0, 27, 54 e 80 mm) com intensidade de 80 mm h-1. Foram realizadas coletas de dados de rugosidade, medidas de K, coleta de amostras indeformadas de solo para análise da porosidade e confecção de lâminas delgadas, e também anéis cilíndricos para curva de retenção de água (CRA) e Ds do solo. No experimento de laboratório, utilizou-se dois solos (siltoso e argiloso) e duas classe de agregados (1-3 e 3-5 mm). Os agregados foram submetidos a diferentes chuvas simuladas (28mmh-1 + EC forte; 28mmh-1 + EC fraca; 90mmh-1 + EC forte; 90mmh-1 + EC fraca) e após avaliou-se o diâmetro médio ponderado dos agregados (DMP). A dinâmica da formação de crostas ocorreu de maneira diferenciada em ambos os sistemas de preparo. Nos sistemas de PC e PR a maior redução da porosidade, pelo efeito da chuva aplicada, ocorreu na camada da crosta e no sistema SP na camada da subcrosta. A camada da crosta foi responsável pela redução da porosidade e K, e aumento da Ds nos sistemas PC e PR. As maiores umidades volumétricas observadas nas CRA ocorreram no sistema de PR e as menores no PC e não demonstraram evolução entre as chuvas aplicadas. A rugosidade superficial do solo variou em função dos sistemas de preparo realizados. Os sistemas conservacionistas (PR e SP) apresentaram maior rugosidade no primeiro ano, no segundo ano a maior rugosidade foi observada no sistema SP. O PC demonstrou nos dois anos estudados a mesma tendência, em função das chuvas aplicadas, inicialmente ocorreu um aumento na rugosidade até uma chuva máxima diminuindo em seguida. No experimento em laboratório, as maiores reduções no DMP ocorreram até a lâmina de 3 e 2 mm para o solo argiloso e siltoso, respectivamente. Nas quantidades iniciais de chuva (lâminas iniciais) a intensidade foi determinante na redução do DMP, com o aumento da quantidade de chuva a energia cinética (EC) passou a influenciar a redução do DMP. A intensidade de 28 mm h-1 promoveu as maiores reduções do DMP possivelmente pelo maior tempo de exposição dos agregados ao molhamento. / The crusts are the result of degradation of the surface structure of the soil, favoring erosion and environmental degradation of soils. This study evaluated the dynamics of the develop surface crusts and its consequences on the porosity, hydraulic conductivity (K), water retention, bulk density (Ds) and the roughness of a Typic Hapludult conducted with different systems of tillage and application of sheets simulated rainfall. Was also evaluated through the an laboratory experiment, the processes involved in the breakdown of aggregates under simulated rainfall. The experiment was conducted in the years 2009 and 2010. In plots of 15 x 30 m were installed the soil tillage: conventional tillage (CT), reduced tillage (RT) and no-tillage (NT). Inside of the plots was installed micro-plots of 1m x 1m, which were applied different sheets of simulated rainfall (0, 27, 54 and 80 mm) with intensity of 80 mm h-1. Roughness data, K measurements, sampling of undisturbed soil samples for porosity analysis and preparation of thin sections, and also cylindrical rings for water retention curve (SWRC) and Ds, were collected. In the laboratory experiment two soils (Silt Loam and Clay Loam) and two aggregate classes (1-3 and 3-5 mm) were used. The aggregates were submitted to different simulated rainfall (28mmh-1 + KE strong; 28mmh-1 + KE weak; 90mmh-1 + KE strong; 90mmh-1 + KE weak) and after the mean weight diameter (MWD) was evaluated. The dynamics of crust formation occurred differently in both tillage systems. In the CT and RT systems the major reduction of the porosity, by effect of the applied rainfall, occurred in the crust layer and in the NT system occurred in the subcrosta layer. Crust formation was responsible for reducing the porosity and K, and increasing Ds, in RT and CT systems. The higher volumetric moisture contents observed in CRA occurred in the PR system and the lowest in CT. The CRA did not show changes between the applied rainfall. The surface roughness of the soil varied in relation to the tillage systems. RT and NT systems showed a higher roughness in the first year during the second year a higher roughness was observed in the NT system. The CT in the two years studied showed the same trend of evolution according to of applied rainfall, initially there was an increase in roughness up to a maximum rain and then decrease. In the laboratory experiment, the largest DMP reductions occurred in the 3 and 2 mm rainfall for the Silt Loam and Clay Loam soils, respectively. In the initial amounts of rainfall, the intensity was determinant in the MWD reduction. With the increase in the amount of rainfall, the kinetic energy influences the MWD reduction. The intensity of 28 mm h-1 produced the greatest reductions in DMP, possibly due to the longer exposure of the aggregates to wetting.

Leaky buildings are those that show elevated moisture contents of the framing timber, which can subsequently lead to the establishment of fungal and bacterial decay. Prior to this study, the causative agents of the decay in these leaky buildings were unknown, though it was suspected to be one or more species of decay fungi. Therefore, the overall goal of this multi-disciplinary PhD thesis research was to determine the causative agents of decay in leaky buildings of New Zealand in an effort to develop solutions for both their remediation and future prevention. Use of molecular biology methodology and classical mycological techniques based on morphology enabled identification of decay fungi from framing timber and air samples of leaky New Zealand buildings and provided insight into relative importance based on isolation frequency. In most cases, fungi colonising Pinus radiata D. Don were isolated to produce pure cultures. Mycelia from these cultures on agar media were collected to extract DNA. To identify the fungi to the species level, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) with fungal specific DNA primer pairs were performed followed by DNA sequencing of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region. Identification was by BLAST (Basic Local Alignment Search Tool) search on sequences in known GenBanks. In total, 421 samples from leaky buildings were processed, predominately untreated P. radiata decayed framing timber and also fibre cement boards and building paper. From these, sixty-eight fungal identifications were made. The only taxa that were isolated with significant frequency were identified as 4 basidiomycete species, as follows, along with the number of times they were isolated from the 421 samples: • Gloeophyllum sepiarium (Wulf.: Fr.) Karst. 13x • Oligoporus placenta (Fries 1865) Gilb. In Ryv.1985 11x • Antrodia sinuosa (Fr.) Karst. 8x • Gloeophyllum trabeum (Fr.) Murr. 4x Although these species were identified repeatedly, in total they represent less than 10% of the total samples and, therefore, it is concluded that the leaky building decay samples represent high fungal biodiversity. An aerial spore study of internal air, wall cavity air and exterior air of leaky buildings was carried out using a Merck MAS-100 instrument which collects spores directly onto selective media plates. Viable fungal aerial spores were detected at every sampling location tested at the leaky buildings, by the criteria of culturing, with a highest mean of 3714 colony-forming units (CFU) per cubic metre found in the cavities of water-damaged walls. This aerial spore study in conjunction with isolation from decayed wood samples from the same leaky buildings enabled identification of G. sepiarium and A. sinuosa at the same test site. The use of carboxymethylcellulose medium further demonstrated the presence of potential cellulose-degrading fungi within and around the location. Overall, the combination of direct sampling of timber and air sampling proved useful for detection of fungal species variability at a multi-unit building. Four decay fungi isolated from New Zealand leaky buildings and two standard control decay fungi (Coniophora puteana and Serpula lacrymans) were submitted to laboratory wood block testing to determine the effectiveness of currently used wood framing preservatives under laboratory conditions before and after a standard leaching regime. P. radiata blocks were treated with water based boron copper azole and solvent based IPBC propiconazole plus tebuconazole (1:1) preservatives and exposed to the basidiomycetes for 12 weeks. Mass loss for the fungal decay-infected samples was recorded of up to 55% for preservative-treated samples, up to 62% mass loss for leached samples and up to 58% mass loss for un-preservative treated samples. Additionally, well defined dosage responses and approximate toxic thresholds were obtained for all preservatives tested. Results suggested that the minimum IPBC retention specified by Hazard Class 1.2 of NZS3640:2003 (0.025% m/m) is on the low side, and demonstrated after the 2 week leaching regime complete loss of efficacy of boron at 0.4% m/m boric acid equivalent (BAE). This PhD research gave a first overview of fungi occurring in New Zealand leaky buildings, and it demonstrated the following key aspects of wood preservation: 1. The isolated test fungus Antrodia sinuosa was more difficult to control with propiconazole plus tebuconazole at retention 0.007% m/m than the known tolerant fungus Oligoporus placenta; 2. Boron at Hazard Class 1.2 retention of 0.4% m/m BAE was not toxic to Oligoporus placenta; 3. Serpula lacrymans exhibited tolerance to the highest retention of 0.06 %m/m tebuconazole plus propiconazole; and 4. Gloeophyllum species appeared susceptible to all wood preservatives. In order to correlate fungal colonisation and wood decay, colonised wood blocks were studied using light microscopy (LM) and field- emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM). Microscopic observations of P. radiata wood blocks following a standard wood decay test of twelve weeks of fungal colonisation by Serpula lacrymans, Antrodia sinuosa, Oligoporus placenta and Gloeophyllum sepiarium revealed that the two microscopic techniques employed were complementary by allowing features such as pit membranes, chlamydospores or S3/S2 compound middle lamella interface to be photographed in greater detail, allowing for more precise analyses and interpretation of key findings, as follows: 1. Brown rot fungi directly target their apical growth towards degraded pit apetures; 2. Reliance on light microscopy and observed birefringence as a tool to record changes in cell wall crystallinity associated with brown rot decay alone could be misleading; 3. Presence of fine (≤ 1 m) to wide (≥ 3.5 m) bore-hole and hyphal size ranges, and nearly unchanged cell wall thickness of all wood/test fungal combinations, confirmed active decay at moderate to late stages; 4. Some ray parenchyma cells for Antrodia sinuosa, Oligoporus placenta and Gloeophyllum sepiarium colonised blocks were intact throughout late stages of decay, outlining that they were not preferentially degraded early in the brown rot decay process, and 5. Presence of bore-holes, clamp and medallion clamp formation and resting spores (chlamydospores and arthrospores) are fungal specific, can aid in their differentiation and identification, and should be recorded during wood decay studies, as especially resting spores are an important factor when planning remediation strategies. In summary, this PhD thesis research provided the first comprehensive investigation into the biodiversity of fungi from leaky New Zealand buildings, identified the dominant species and presented details about their micromorphology and their decay patterns. It also demonstrated substantial differences in efficacy of preservative formulations currently (December 2008) approved for framing treatments in New Zealand and possible deficiencies where framing may be subjected to severe leaching. This study also provided the first comparative analyses of viable fungal aerial spores between leaky wall cavities and the surrounding air environment. Subsequently, this research added to the knowledge of the decay fungal species diversity in and around New Zealand leaky buildings, outlined their capabilities to degrade treated and un-treated P. radiata framing timber and illustrated the efficacy of New Zealand approved wood preservatives for their potential as remedial treatment and future prevention.

Modern Pine Island and Thwaites Glaciers, which both drain into Pine Island Bay, are some of the fastest moving portions of the cryosphere and may be the most unstable ice streams in Antarctica. I examined over 133 cores to conduct a detailed sedimentological facies analysis. These data, augmented by new radiocarbon and 210Pb dates, and bathymetric data, are used to reconstruct the post-LGM deglacial history of PIB and gain a better understanding of the causes of ice sheet retreat. My results record a clear retreat stratigraphy in PIB composed of, from top to base; terrigenous sandy silt (plumite), pebbly sandy mud (ice-proximal glacimarine), and till. Initial retreat from the outer-continental shelf began shortly after the LGM and before 16.4 k cal yr BP, in response to rising sea level. Bedforms in outer PIB document episodic retreat in the form of back-stepping grounding zone wedges and are associated with proximal glacimarine sediments. A sub-ice shelf facies is observed in central PIB that spans ∼12.3–10.6 k cal yr BP. Widespread impingement of warm water onto the continental shelf caused an abrupt change from sub-ice shelf sedimentation to distal glacimarine sedimentation dominated by dispersal of terrigenous silt between 7.8 and 7.0 k cal yr BP. The uppermost sediments in Pine Island Bay were hydrodynamically sorted by meltwater plumes. Inner Pine Island Bay contains several large basins that are linked by channels. The most recent release of sediment coincides with rapid retreat of the grounding line, and has an order of magnitude greater flux relative to the entire unit, indicating episodic sedimentation. This is the first identification of a meltwater-derived deposit in Antarctica and demonstrates that punctuated meltwater-intensive glacial retreat occurred at least three times throughout the Holocene in this region. Quartz sand grains were used to conduct an analysis of mode of transport for sediments in the Antarctic Peninsula region from the Eocene to present to record the onset of glaciation. Glacial transport imparts a unique suite of microtextures on quartz grains from high shear-stresses. Eocene samples are free of glacial influence. Late Eocene samples show the inception of glacially derived high-stress microtextures, marking the onset of alpine glaciation. Oligocene grains are similar to the late Eocene samples. Middle Miocene microtextures are characteristic of transport from far-field large ice sheets, originating from ice rafting from the West Antarctic Ice Sheet. The Pliocene and Pleistocene samples indicate the existence of the northern Antarctic Peninsula Ice Sheet at this time, consistent with other proxies.

This thesis presents an independent, sediment-based record of landscape change within an agricultural hinterland. Established historical and archaeological sequences document the primary occupation of Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka’s ancient capital, beginning ca. 400 BC and lasting until it was largely abandoned in AD 1017. Anuradhapura is located in the island’s dry zone, which depends almost completely on the unpredictable Northeastern Monsoon for water. Oral history and historical narratives have long held that large-scale irrigated rice cultivation took place in the hinterland to produce an agricultural surplus that sustained the urban and monastic populations. However, until the onset of the Anuradhapura Hinterland Project in 2005, the archaeological record of the hinterland was undocumented, leaving existing narratives untested. The geoarchaeological research presented here was undertaken as part of the Hinterland Project, in order to document the chronology and cultural and environmental processes that contributed to the formation of this irrigated landscape. Optical dating of sediments demonstrates that the onset of large-scale irrigation began ca. 400 BC, and the construction of new works continued until Anuradhapura’s late occupation period. Sampled reservoirs and channels began to infill, indicating widespread disuse, within ca. 100 years of Anuradhapura’s abandonment. Soil micromorphology and bulk sediment characterisation document hinterland habitation, water management, and cultivation activities prior to the establishment of large-scale irrigation. This work illustrates the coping strategies that people employed to deal with the vagaries of the dry zone environment and demonstrates that hinterland land use changed throughout the primary occupation period. Although largescale irrigation works infilled relatively rapidly, cultural activity and land use re-emerged following this period of disuse.

Les recherches entreprises dans cette thèse visent à définir les processus de formation des anthroposols archéologiques précolombiens sur le territoire guyanais ainsi qu'à participer à la restitution des activités humaines passées. Elles sont fondées sur l'étude et l'analyse des propriétés intrinsèques des sédiments archéologiques, telles que, d'une part, leur nature et leur organisation pédo-sédimentaires, et d'autre part, leurs propriétés physico-chimiques. La possibilité de disposer d'un corpus de sites archéologiques de plein air dans différents contextes géomorphologiques (plaine alluviale, colline latéritique pour les montagnes couronnées), et la mise en place d'une approche géoarchéologique combinant observations micromorphologiques et analyses physico-chimiques, a permis d'investiguer différents types d'anthroposols précolombiens guyanais, et de les caractériser suivant plusieurs marqueurs anthropiques, directs et indirects. L'analyse géoarchéologique révèle que la pédogénèse naturelle a été impactée par l'anthropisation ancienne et indique une certaine résilience des sols. La micromorphologie des sols a permis de mettre en évidence des microtraces anthropiques telles que des charbons (micro et macro) et des céramiques, communs aux deux contextes, ainsi que différents types d'agrégats brûlés provenant de la surface des sols ayant subi la chauffe pour les montagnes couronnées. L'activité anthropique a aussi probablement favorisé les processus de lessivage des argiles par des apports anciens de cendres. La pédofaune a été transformée comme le laisse supposer, en lames minces, la présence de traits rapportés à Pontoscolex corethrurus. Les analyses archéo-environnementales complémentaires mises en place dans ce travail (anthracologie, phytolithes, susceptibilité magnétique) ont permis de compléter les données acquises sur la mise en place des anthroposols étudiés. Ces travaux, précurseurs pour le territoire guyanais, et en s'inspirant des études menées non loin, en Amazonie brésilienne sur les terra preta/mulata ou Amazonian Dark Earth, viennent compléter le référentiel des anthroposols archéologiques développés en Amazonie. Ils ont, en outre, permis d'émettre plusieurs hypothèses quant à l'origine des marqueurs d'activités, directs ou indirects, observés dans les anthroposols archéologiques, et de mettre ainsi en évidence les manifestations humaines anciennes qui auraient pu avoir lieu sur les sites étudiés. Des activités fondamentales telles que les foyers domestiques ou la mise en culture des sols semblent avoir pris place sur ces derniers. Des hypothèses sur les modèles d'occupation de l'espace ont été proposées en s'intéressant aux zones de rejet principalement, situées en retrait des maisons supposées et à proximité du fossé dans le cas des montagnes couronnées. Cette étude s'inscrit typiquement dans une approche archée-environnementale qui vient préciser les liens étroits qu'entretenaient les populations précolombiennes avec leur environnement. / The research undertaken in this thesis, aims to identify the formation processes of the pre­Columbian archaeological anthropogenic soils in the French Guiana territory as well as to contribute to revisiting ancient human activities. lt is based on the study and analysis of the intrinsic properties of archaeological sediments, such as, on the one hand, their nature and their pedo-sedimentary composition, and on the other hand, their physicochemical properties. The availability of a corpus of open air archaeological sites in different geomorphological settings (e.g., floodplain; lateritic hill with circular ditch glossed in French montagne couronnée), and the implementation of a geoarchaeological approach combining micromorphological observations and physicochemical analyses, enabled to investigate different kinds of pre-Columbian anthropogenic soils in French Guiana, and to characterize them according to several anthropogenic markers, both direct and indirect. Geoarchaeological analysis revealed that the natural pedogenesis has been impacted by the ancient anthropization and indicates a certain resilience of soils. The soil micromorphology demonstrated anthropogenic microtraces such as charcoal (micro and macro) and fragments of pottery, common to both contexts, as well as different kinds of heated aggregates originating from the surface of the soils having been burned, only for the montagnes couronnées sites. Anthropogenic activity probably also contributed to the process of leaching of clay via the formed ashes. The pedofaune has been transformed as one may assume, in thin sections, the presence of pedofeatures related to Pontoscolex corethrurus. Additional archaeo-environmental analyses implemented in this study (anthracology, phytoliths, magnetic susceptibility) allowed completing the data acquired on the implementation of the studied anthropogenic soils. These studies, pioneering for French Guiana, though inspired by studies in the near Brazilian Amazon on terra preta/mulata or Amazonian Dark Earth, complement the repository of archaeological anthropogenic soils developed in the Amazon. Furthermore, they allowed several hypotheses about the origins of the activity markers, either direct or indirect, observed in the archaeological anthropogenic soils, and evidenced ancient human events that could have taken place on the sites studied. Fundamental activities such as house tires or the cultivation of the land appear to have taken place on the latter. Assumptions about the models of occupation of space have been proposed mainly by refuse areas behind the supposed houses and near the ditch in the case of the montagnes couronnées. This study is situated in an archaeo-environmental approach demonstrating the close relations between pre-Columbian populations with their environment.

Traditionally archaeology has referred to the anthropic sediments accumulated around prehistoric settlements with the blanket term ‘midden’. This is now recognised as an inadequate term to describe the complex formation processes and functions represented in these sediments. This thesis reviewed the body of evidence accumulated over the past century of research into Neolithic and Bronze Age settlements on the islands of the Scottish North Atlantic seaboard and extrapolated the many occurrences of ‘midden’. Several contexts emerged for these sediments including interior floors, hearths, exterior occupational surfaces, dumped deposits, building construction materials and abandonment infill. In addition, ‘midden’ is described added to cultivated soils to form fertile anthrosols. The way in which prehistoric communities exploited this material for agriculture and construction has been described through geoarchaeological research which implied that to past communities ‘midden’ was a valuable resource. This led to the formation of a model based upon a human ecodynamics framework to hypothesise sediment formation pathways. Rescue excavation at the Links of Noltland, Westray provided an opportunity to conduct a holistic landscape and fine resolution based study of Neolithic and Bronze Age settlement to test this model. The research incorporated auger survey, archaeological and geoarchaeological excavation, thin section micromorphology and SEM EDX analyses. Sediments identified in literature review and recovered from the field site were described using this toolkit and set within a cultural and environmental context. Results demonstrate that anthropic materials were incorporated into all contexts examined. Discrete burning and maintenance activities were found to have taken place during the gradual accumulation of open-air anthropic sediments whilst incorporation of fuel residues and hearth waste into floors lead to the gradual formation of ‘living floors’ inside structures. An unexpected discovery was evidence of animal penning within late Neolithic/Early Bronze Age settlement and the in situ burning of stabling waste. Three types iv | P a g e of land management strategy which relied upon the input of anthropic sediments were evidenced and the range and extent of anthropic inclusions in the landscape recorded. Spatial interpolation of auger survey data utilised a new sub-surface modelling technique being developed by the British Geological Survey to explore soil stratigraphic relationships in 3D. SEM EDX analysis supported micromorphological analysis providing chemical data for discrete inclusions and assisting in the identification of herbivore dun ash and the Orcadian funerary product ‘cramp’. SEM EDX analysis was also applied to fine organo-mineral material for statistical testing of nutrient loadings across context groups. It was found that anthropic sediments were enriched in macro and intermediate plant nutrients Mg, P, K, S and Ca compared to geological controls, and the application of anthropic material to cultivated soils improved soil fertility for the three observed land management practices. The versatility of anthropic sediments was explored through discussion of context groups based upon the results of this research and the potential significance of this material to prehistoric communities is explored.

The Sámi’s past activities have been documented historically from a European perspective, and more recently from an anthropological viewpoint, giving a generalised observation of the Sámi, during the study period of AD200-AD1800, as semi-nomadic hunter gatherers, with several theories suggesting that interaction with Europeans, through trade, led to the adoption of European activities by certain groups of the Sámi (Eiermann, 1923; Paine, 1957; Manker and Vorren, 1962; Bratrein, 1981; Mathiesen et al, 1981; Meriot, 1984). However, there is almost no information on the impact the Sámi had on the landscape, either before or after any adoption of European activities, and none investigating what cultural footprint or indicators would remain from Sámi or European occupation and/or activity within the typically podzolic soils of Northern Sweden. Consequently the thesis aims to contribute to the gap in knowledge through the formation of a podzol model identifying the links between anthropogenic activity and the alteration of podzol soils, and through the creation of soils based models which identify the cultural indicators associated with both Sámi and European activity; formed from the identification of cultural indicators retained within known Sámi and European sites. The methods used to obtain the information needed to achieve this were the pH and magnetic susceptibility from bulk soil samples and micromorphological and chemical analysis of thin section slides through the use of standard microscopy and X-ray fluorescence from a scanning electron microscope. The analysis revealed that the Sámi had an extremely low impact on the landscape, leaving hard to detect cultural indicators related to reindeer herding in the form of reindeer faecal material with corresponding phosphorous peaks in the thin section slides. The European footprint however, was markedly different and very visible even within the acidic soil environment. The European indicators were cultivation based and included phosphorous and aluminium peaks as well as a deepened, highly homogenised plaggen style anthropogenic topsoil rich in ‘added’ materials. An abandoned European site which visibly and chemically shows the formation of a secondary albic horizon within the anthropogenic topsoil also provides an insight into the delicate balance of cultivated soil in northern Sweden, whilst reinforcing the outputs identified in the podzol model. Due to the almost invisible Sámi footprint on the landscape, areas of overlap were impossible to identify however, there was no evidence of the adoption of European cultivation activities at any of the Sámi sites investigated. The only known area of interaction between the two cultures was an official market place which had been a Sámi winter settlement prior to its use as a market site. This site showed none of the reindeer based Sámi indicators or the cultivation based European indicators, but did contain pottery fragments which could be linked to trade or occupation. Overall, the thesis reinforces the low impact expected of the semi-nomadic Sámi and sheds light on the underlying podzolic processes influencing the anthropogenically modified soils of Northern Sweden. The podzol model is reinforced by several findings throughout the thesis and the soils based cultural indicator models for both Sámi and European activity have been successfully tested against independent entomological and palynological data and therefore provide reliable reference material for future studies.