PhD (Environmental Management) / Mining and mining-related activities remain the world’s most intensive, primary industrial activity undertaken with severe environmental impact. Coal mining falls within these primary undertakings, while coal burning for energy use further adds to environmental degradation. Coal burning is by far the least expensive and thus the most affordable means of energy supply to the South Africa low-income communities. It is likely that this status quo will continue indefinitely. The use of coal as an energy source in South African communities has been inherited with its resultant environmental (physical), social and economic implications. The physical implications are the actual hazards associated with coal during and after mining activities. “Physical hazards” include processes generating coal dust, coal ash and gaseous emissions, and hazards that manifest themselves from the existence of coal mining at a particular site, such as spontaneous combustion, surface instability and acid mine-water drainage. “Social hazards” are mostly the social and economic effects that are related to health. Social hazards associated with coal mining, coal processing and coal usage include dilution of cultural values, ethics, norms and the growth of informal sectors, for example, settlements and trade. Some of these hazards are immediate, while others are long-term and cumulative. Emphasis was placed on the cumulative effects of mining activities and the need to address issues relating to communities that live close to mining operations. This process of addressing community concerns is known as “creating a sustainable mining community”. South Africa hosted the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development and is a signatory of the working plan of action known as the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation. Therefore, one would expect to see that mining communities in South Africa are acting on and benefiting from this plan of action. The aim of this research is to assess the effectiveness of the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development and the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation in promoting sustainable mining and sustainable communities through changes in practices, perceptions and community participation in decision making. The research, undertaken during February to June 2007, examines the role of stakeholders and local authorities in basic environmental decisions. Environmental decisions examined were the provision of education and information to the community, uplifting community welfare through corporate social investment and corporate social responsibility. The surrounding communities of eMalahleni (formerly Witbank) in the Mpumalanga (Highveld) coal-mining region – were identified as a suitable area for this case study. Social research tools, comprising multiple-choice and open-ended questions administered to 6 790 respondents (3 930 learners and 2 860 general adult population), 650 voluntary comments, six individual interviews, and a 20 member focus group discussion, were used. Photographic images and personal observation provided meaning to results by presenting the quantitative and qualitative data visually. A blended methodological approach was used to analyse the data using descriptive statistics and a t-test for variance. Tables, bar graphs and pie charts were the various representative techniques deployed during the analysis. Data were analysed comparing statistical input and responses of the learners and the general population. Results presented show that the studied community is aware of some hazards associated with coal from the mining process to indoor combustion. The community studied is aware of the need for pro-active measures to protect their community. Members of the community are not aware of company decisions affecting the community with regard to coal hazards. They are also unaware of the existence and application of environmental legislation. Awareness was not linked to education or information obtained from a reliable source, such as a mining company or a local authority. It was based on personal experience, longevity of dwelling in the community and observation of the health conditions of relatives and friends. Some voluntary comments from the respondents and photographic images are included to support the community’s outlook. The research concluded that there are more unidentified hazards in the community than were covered in the structured questionnaires. The responses received to the questionnaires exposed the mining industry as being dismissive when it came to applying the law. This evasive behaviour emanates from the laxity of the enforcement departments and responsible authorities. More needs to be done to attain the requirements of the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation as agreed upon at the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development.

MSc (Botany) / Department of Botany

MENVSC (Geography) / Department of Geography and Geo-Information Science / Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) has devastating impacts on different parts of the environment and is a source of environmental degradation and contamination. ASGM degrades water resources, contaminate soil, sediments and water and lead to serious land degradation problems. ASGM activities are also associated with socio-economic issues such as child labour, prostitution and health and safety concerns. Insufficient understanding of the environmental and social problems of ASGM in Giyani Greenstone Belt has led to lack of mitigation strategies to reduce such problems. The main aim of this research was to assess and manage the environmental and socio-economic impacts of ASGM in Giyani Greenstone Belt. Remote sensing and GIS and Normalised Differential Vegetation Index were used to assess the effects of mining activities on vegetation cover. Assessment of the effects of ASGM on water, sediments and soil quality involved collection of samples in order to establish their physical and chemical properties. The concentration of toxic and trace metals were determined using Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (AAS) and X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) instruments. The pH meter was used to determine the pH level of the collected samples. Questionnaires, interviews and SPSS were used to assess socio-economic impacts of ASGM. The study culminated in devolvement of NDVI maps and this was used to assess the effects of ASGM on vegetation cover. Results showed that the mining activities in the area had caused extensive environmental degradation due to serious removal of vegetation cover in the site. ASGM had serious effects on soil, water and sediments quality such as environmental contamination by toxic and trace elements. Soil samples were found with high concentration of As, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn as compared to the recommended South African Soil Quality and WHO threshold values for plants. It was found that Klein Letaba had high concentration of Ba, La, V, and Ce above the World Soil Averages for plants. Sediments were heavily contaminated with Cr, Ni, Pb, Zn, As and Ba as compared to the recommended standards prescribed by US EPA and WHO. The pH of water, soil and sediments samples collected from both mining sites were found to be strongly alkaline which affects the plants growth as well as aquatic flora and fauna. Socio-economic issues such as child labour, injuries, educational problems, health and safety issues, police disturbance, creation of jobs and income generation were identified at mine sites. ASGM had serious effect on vegetation cover through environmental degradation. ASGM also had serious environmental contamination by toxic and trace elements. ASGM had both positive and negative socio-economic issues at mining site which include employment opportunities, income generation, occupational health and safety, police disturbance and arrests and the use of child labour. Mine site rehabilitation is recommended in this study to reduce environmental degradation. The remediation of contaminated area by concentrated toxic and trace elements should be applied at both mining sites. ASGM should be legalised to enhance positive aspects of the mining such as increase in income generation and creation of more employment opportunities. However, there should be enforcement of mining policies to reduce social and environmental problems.

MESMEG / Department of Mining and Environmental Geology / See the attached abstract below

MESMEG / Department of Mining and Environmental Geology / Giyani Greenstone Belt is known to host significant amount of gold of which about 10 tonnes were extracted from the belt in the 19th century. Due to increased gold price and mining practices that make it economic to mine low-grade ore deposits, major gold deposits within the belt have been the main targets for exploration while Nebulas Prospect remain unnoticed. To make the Nebulas Prospect attractive for investment, its gold mineralization potential needed to be investigated. The main purpose of this study was to conduct assessment of the probable gold mineralization in the Nebulas Prospect and its economic viability. The specific objectives were to establish the gold mineralized zones within the Nebulas Prospect, develop a geological model showing the geometry and placement of gold in the subsurface, establish gold grade distribution and its economic implication, and select the most appropriate and practical mining method for exploitation of the established gold deposit. The research approaches used in achieving these objectives comprised of knowledge driven predictive modelling of Nebulas Prospect to derive prospectivity map demarcating the area with the potential of hosting gold mineralization. Magnetic survey was conducted in geological permissive areas, thereby establishing boundaries of mineralization, both lateral and vertical. Geological and subsurface gold grade distribution were carried out by means of trenching and pitting. The integration of the geological, geophysical and geochemical data using Geosoft 8.5 and ArcGIS 10.5 assisted in development of a gold deposit model that model illustrates distribution and concentration of gold. Results of the investigation reveals that Banded Iron Formation (BIF) dominates the southern part of the study area while quartz vein and schist dominate the northern part. The application of knowledge driven predictive modelling established mineral prospectivity map for Nebulas Prospect, which narrowed the potential area for further investigation. The area located outside the boundary of prospective area indicated low mineralization potential compared to highly mineralized zone within geological permissive boundary. The two mineralize zones which exits in the Nebulas Prospect are separated by pegmatite intrusion which is observed from magnetic data presentation. The gold is hosted within BIF, schist and quartz vein. The highest concentration observed value of 10.65 g/t is hosted in serpentine schist and lowest significant of 1.24 g/t in BIF. The gold grades are higher in schists than in BIF and quartz veins. The Nebulas Prospect present significant measured iv gold mineral resource with substantial economic potential. The evaluation of the technical aspects of the Nebulas Gold Deposit, which include grade and tonnage was estimated through longitudinal vertical section method. The gold hosted within Banded Iron Formation (BIF) comprise a measured gold resource of 6957.6 t at an average weighted grade of 2.22 g/t Au. However, the gold mineralization hosted within tremolite-mica schist, serpentine schist and quartz veins comprise a measured gold resource of 3919.37 t with average grade of 3.8 g/t Au. The Nebulas Gold Deposit contain a significant grade and tonnage. At an assumed currently economically mineable cutoff grade 1 g/t Au, Nebulas Prospect has a measured resource of 10877 t at a weighted average grade of 2.79 g/t Au. Analytical hierarchy process (AHP) was used to prioritize the factors affecting mining method selection and ranking of potential mining method, technically appropriate for the established gold deposit in Nebulas Prospect. Open pit mining method was identified as appropriated for extraction of the Nebulas Gold Deposit. / NRF

PhDENV (Geology) / Department of Mining and Environmental Geology / The study focused on the geology, structural setting and mineralisation of copper-sulphide deposits in the Musina area, located in the Central Zone of the Limpopo Mobile Belt of South Africa. The Messina copper deposits are located in the eastern part of Limpopo Province near the border with Zimbambwe. The deposits stretch from northeastern to southwestern direction for about 15 km. Previous copper mining in the area took place at Artonvilla, Messina, Harper, Campbell and Lilly copper deposits. The current study, however, focused on two main deposits, Campbell and Artonvilla. The origin, nature and mode of formation of the Cu-sulphide deposits in the Musina area have not been established with certainty. Two principal hypotheses on the origin of the Messina copper sulphide deposits have been proposed, viz; a magmatic-hydrothermal model, and meteoric waters model. Consequently, the mode of formation and mineralisation style of the Messina Cu-sulphide deposits remain contentious. Therefore, the main objective of the study was to investigate the nature and mode of formation of Cu-sulphide deposits in the Musina area. Different research methods have been applied in the current study so as to unpack the contradictory positions on the genesis of the Messina copper deposits. This included fieldwork, remote sensing data acquisition, laboratory work, and data analysis and interpretation. Fieldwork involved soil geochemical survey as well as rock and ore sampling within the study area. A total of 295 soil samples, 33 rock specimens and 21 ore samples were collected for laboratory investigation. Laboratory work consisted of a range of methods that included; geochemical analysis, petrographic and cathodoluminescence microscopy, ore mineralogy and ore microscopy, fluid inclusion geothermometry and isotope geochemistry. The work was done in different laboratories including: Mining and Environmental Geology Laboratory, Unviersity of Venda; Department of Geology Laboratory, University of Johannesburg; MINTEK Laboratory in Johannesburg; Société Générale de Surveillance Laboratory in Johannesburg, South Africa; Department of Applied Geology, Geoscience Institute, Göttingen University, Germany and Department of Geology, University of Georgia, Athens, United States of America. Remote sensing data was acquired from Southern Mapping Company, Johannesburg, South Africa. Interpretation of Remote sensing data was done at the University of Applied Sciences, Oswestfalen-Lippe, Germany. Data analysis and interpretation of laboratory results involved the use of: Desktop ArcGIS 10.4.1 for geochemical data interpretation; ENVI 5.1 and ArcGIS 10.4.1 Softwares for remote sensing data; and Triplot version 4.1.2 software for ternary plot for compositional variation of rocks. Soil geochemical survey revealed geochemical anomalies for Pb, Zn, Cu, As and Ni over the known copper deposits in the area as well as over six other areas that have not been associated with any sulphide mineralisation. Such new anomalous areas have been identified as target areas for future exploration of sulphide ore mineralisation. Petrographic studies of the rocks confirmed the host rocks to be amphibolite-quartz granulite, biotite-garnet-quartz granulite, amphibolite, quartzite, hornblende gneiss, quartzo-feldspathic gneiss, potassium-feldspathic gneiss and cal-silicate gneiss. These rocks were subjected to hydrothermal alteration during ore mineralisation within the area. It was further noted that epidote alteration was quite intensive in ore samples, while in unmineralised rock samples it was less intensive. Remote sensing data interpretation revealed spatial distribution and intensity of epidote alteration within the study area and in places coincided either with the known copper deposits or structural features, thus led to the identification of target areas for future mineral exploration in the Musina area. The current study established that the process of ore mineralisation in the Messina copper deposits took place in two distinct phases: first the formation of garnet, graphite, magnetite and hematite during regional metamorphism of the Limpopo Mobile Belt; and secondly, sulphide ore mineralisation resulting in the formation of copper ore comprising, veined, disseminated and brecciated ores. Sulphide ore mineralisation consisted mainly of pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, bornite, chalcocite and minor pyrrhotite and galena as well as traces of pentlandite, tennantite, mollybdenite, cobaltite and tetrahedrite. This confirms that the Messina copper deposits had complex sulphide ore mineralisation that is typical of hydrothermal mode of ore mineralisation from a magmatic source. The study further establishes the paragenitic sequence of ore mineralisation, comprising four stages: Stage I (Garnet- graphite – Fe oxides); stage II (Quartz- pyrite); stage III (Pyrite- sphalerite - chalcopyrite); and stage IV (Carbonates). Stage III represented the main stage of sulphide ore mineralisation in the area, while Stage IV comprising calcite, dolomite and ankarite marked the final stage of hydrothermal ore mineralisation. Paragenetic sequence identified three generations of quartz; first generation being associated with garnet, graphite, magnetite and hematite, second generation with pyrite and third generation with pyrite, sphalerite and chalcopyrite. Previous studies, however, indicated that there was only one generation of quartz that formed at the temperature between 210o to 150°C, but the current study established that the entrapment temperature of first generation quartz ranges from 315o to 200°C; second generation quartz from 235o to 135°C and third generation quartz from 240o to 115°C. At the same time, sulphur isotope investigation of chalcopyrite-pyrite pair from Campbell deposit registered a temperature of 359°C. The study therefore concluded that the temperature of ore formation within the Messina copper deposits ranged between 359°C and 115°C. The presence of halite and calcite as daughter minerals within the fluid inclusions was noted and this apparently is indicative of high salinity of fluid inclusions, which is considered as a product of direct exolution of crystalizing magma. Raman spectroscopy revealed the composition of gases in the fluid inclusions to be CH4 and N2 with 80% and 20% composition respectively, however, some inclusions were gas-poor. The presence of gases in the fluid inclusions is an indication that there was boiling at the time of entrapment. A narrow range of 34S values of -0.5 to 0.5‰ obtained in this study further confirms the magmatic source of Sulphur as Sulphur from the host rock was found to have high 𝛿34S value of 8.2‰. A genetic model for copper ore mineralisation within Musina area is proposed. The deposits are of polymetallic vein type that are genetically associated with porphyry copper deposits. According to this model, copper ore bodies were formed from hydrothermal fluids originating from magma and were epigenetic in nature. Geological structures in the area acted as conduits for hydrothermal fluids that resulted in the alteration of the host rocks and mineralisation of copper sulphide ore. Thus, the Messina coper deposits are of magmatic hydrothermal origin although the apparent location of a batholith is still unknown and the study recommends further viii research work on the location of the batholith that is presumed to have been the magmatic source. The study further recommend dating of later rocks as well as orebody s it is essential for understanding the process of ore formation in this area. For further exploration, areas that have undergone “moderate” to “high” degree of epidote alteration and lie in close proximity to geological structures such as faults and thrust folds that could have acted as conduits for hydrothermal fluids and resulted in sulphide ore mineralisation and registered high geochemical anomalies for Pb, Zn, As and Ni should be targeted. In support of further mineral exploration within the study area, the study recommend a detailed geostatistical application for the purpose of delineating homogeneous areas based on the combination of lineaments, interpolated soil geochemical maps and thematic maps. / NRF

MESMEG / Department of Mining and Environmental Geology / The Mushithe coal occurrence is situated approximately 16 km west of the Tshikondeni coal mine in the Tshipise-Pafuri sub-basin of the Soutpansberg coalfield in South Africa. The Soutpansberg Coalfield has received comparatively less attention compared to other more notable South African coalfields. There is as a consequence very limited information in the public domain applicable to the geology as well as quality of coal in this coalfield, as a result there is no known study focused exclusively on the Mushithe coal occurrence. The aim of the study was to conduct detailed geological mapping of the Mushithe Deposit so as to ascertain the geological environment and petrological characteristics of rocks within the area. Further work involved coal sampling and analysis in order to establish coal quality and its physical and chemical characteristics. Samples were collected using geological field mapping and channel sampling. Nine coal samples were collected from the coalbed and host rock, exposed along the Mbodi River, during geological field mapping using channel sampling. Furthermore, 92 rock samples were collected during geological field mapping of which 10 representative samples were selected for further analysis. X-ray fluorescence spectrometry was conducted on all selected samples. Proximate analysis and ultimate analyses, and calorimetry tests were undertaken on coal samples. Three samples were selected based on calorific value for maceral identification, mineral analyses and vitrinite reflectance using petrographic study. Detailed geological mapping of the area around the Mushithe coal occurrence showed the geological setting of coal in this area. The following lithologies were identified in the study area: sandstone, mudstone, ironstone, calcrete, shale, quartzite, quartz vein with a general strike direction to the north-east. The host rocks including coal were intruded by dolerite dykes and this resulted in the devolatilization of coal. The current study concluded that the Mushithe coal was formed in a wet swampy environment. This has been confirmed based on tissue preservation index (1.69) and gelification index (2.35). Coal rank ranged from bituminous Rank C- B according to United Nations Economic Commission for Europe Coal Classification (UNECE) and samples were characterised by high ash (27.90%), high moisture (10.47%) and low sulphur (0.24%). Furthermore, coal was graded below grade D based on classification for use by ESKOM which consider any calorific value below 24.5 MJ/kg to be in this category. The coal is vitrinite rich (77.75 vol%) and low in Inertinite (22.25 vol%) and devoid of Liptinite and pseudovitrinite, thus it is of good coking quality. Geochemical analysis revealed that the coal was enriched in TiO2 and Fe2O3 which was corroborated by the mineral matter which was mostly clay and pyrite. Comparatively, coal quality analysis revealed the calorific value of 14.26 MJ/kg and vitrinite reflectance between 0.94 %ROV to 1 %ROV which was less than that of the Tshikondeni Deposit but greater than that at Waterberg coalfield. The study recommends further detailed exploration of coal in the area, applying such techniques such as geophysical exploration and borehole drilling leading to resource evaluation. Further studies are recommended to provide a better interpretation of the depositional environment of coal at Mushithe as well as the effect of devolatilaziton by a dolerite dyke. / NRF

The objective of the study was to investigate the relationship between sense of coherence, work locus of control and burnout amongst mid-level managers in underground coal mining, and to determine whether sense of coherence and work locus of control can predict the level of burnout in the sample. A cross-sectional survey design was used and three questionnaires were administered, namely the Orientation to Life questionnaire, The Maslach Burnout Inventory – General Survey and the Work Locus of Control Scale. The sample consisted of 131 mid-level managers from a leading coal mining organisation in Mpumalanga, South Africa. The results indicated low to moderate levels of exhaustion, cynicism and reduced professional efficacy, as subdimensions of burnout, in the sample group. Sense of coherence and internal work locus of control showed statistically significant negative correlations with burnout. The two salutogenic constructs predicted a significant portion of the variance in burnout in the sample group. / Industrial & Organisational Psychology / MCOM (Industrial and Organisational Psychology)

The objective of the study was to investigate the relationship between sense of coherence, work locus of control and burnout amongst mid-level managers in underground coal mining, and to determine whether sense of coherence and work locus of control can predict the level of burnout in the sample. A cross-sectional survey design was used and three questionnaires were administered, namely the Orientation to Life questionnaire, The Maslach Burnout Inventory – General Survey and the Work Locus of Control Scale. The sample consisted of 131 mid-level managers from a leading coal mining organisation in Mpumalanga, South Africa. The results indicated low to moderate levels of exhaustion, cynicism and reduced professional efficacy, as subdimensions of burnout, in the sample group. Sense of coherence and internal work locus of control showed statistically significant negative correlations with burnout. The two salutogenic constructs predicted a significant portion of the variance in burnout in the sample group. / Industrial and Organisational Psychology / M. Com. (Industrial and Organisational Psychology)

A research report submitted to the Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Engineering, 2017 / In many mineral resource rich African countries, mining activity makes a significant contribution towards the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and economic growth. This stimulus gives the mining industry the potential to fuel growth and development. Although some mining areas have been able to experience positive economic growth, many have struggled to achieve and sustain economic development due to the inability to manage mineral wealth challenges. African mining regulatory bodies generally lack proper local planning, resulting in inadequate policy instruments to enable the sector to make a sustainable contribution towards economic welfare. This research investigates how mineral wealth can be used as a catalyst for sustainable economic development. The research presents the case studies of three mining areas with the aim of determining why the economic development of Johannesburg differs substantially from that of Tarkwa and Obuasi. The research gives a comparative analysis of the political economy and socio-economic trends that have transpired in the three areas over the years. It ends by making recommendations on how Tarkwa and Obuasi can better manage the challenges of mineral wealth, and work towards achieving sustainable economic development that is like or even better than that of Johannesburg / CK2018