Escherichia coli possède une grande plasticité génomique comme en témoigne la diversité des souches à l’intérieur de cette espèce bactérienne. Bien que la majorité des souches soient inoffensives ou à tout le moins opportunistes, plusieurs ont acquis des facteurs de virulence spécifiques leur procurant un pouvoir pathogénique. Les souches pathogènes comme E. coli O157 :H7 sont responsables de cas de morbidité, mortalité et pertes économiques importantes dans l’industrie agro-alimentaire dans le monde entier. L’évolution bactérienne est un mécanisme continuel qui se fait via l’échange d’éléments génétiques mobiles, de mutations ponctuelles et autres réarrangements génétiques. Ces changements génétiques peuvent procurer des avantages sélectifs permettant une adaptation bactérienne rapide face aux stress et changements environnementaux et favorisant le développement de pathogènes émergents. Dans la première partie de ce projet, nous avons étudié la région intergénique mutS-rpoS, qui est une des plus grandes sources de polymorphisme chromosomique chez les entérobactéries. Notre analyse génomique comparative a permis de confirmer le polymorphisme à l’intérieur même d’un ensemble de souches Escherichia spp., Salmonella spp. et Shigella spp. De plus, nous avons pu confirmer que certains types de polymorphismes dans la région mutS-rpoS étaient fortement associés à certains types de pathogènes chez E. coli. Dans notre analyse, nous avons ressorti un groupe de gènes à l’intérieur de la région mutS-rpoS qui pourraient sevir comme marqueur chromosomique intéressant pour les E. coli extra-intestinaux (ExPEC), un groupe comprennant des souches hautement pathogènes et difficiles à définir par les tests actuelllement disponibles. Dans notre analyse bio-informatique, nous avons isolé ce groupe de gènes associé aux ExPEC et nous l’avons caractérisé in sillico. Nous avons également inclus dans l’analyse deux souches hypermutables du genre Escherichia spp. de notre collection, isolées d’animaux de ferme. L’hypermutabilité ou la capacité d’acquérir des mutations plus rapidement que la normale accélère le processus d’évolution et la capacité d’adaptation de ces souches. La région mutS-rpoS est reliée au système de réparation de l’ADN bactérien (MMRS) et pourrait être impliquée dans l’apparition du phénotype d’hypermutabilité. Durant les dernières années, de plus en plus d’espèces du genre Escherichia ont été isolées de cas cliniques d’animaux et d’humains. Ces souches atypiques ont un potentiel de virulence très élevé, des combinaisons de gènes de virulence et des variants génétiques différents des souches typiques, et certaines souches ont même évolué en tant que pathogènes. Les souches de l’espèce E. albertii ont été isolées récemment et ont un grand potentiel de virulence autant chez les humains que chez les oiseaux. Ces souches sont souvent confondues avec d’autres organismes pathogènes comme E. coli dans les tests biochimiques, et le manque de connaissances sur E. albertii rend son identification difficile. Dans la deuxième partie de ce projet, nous avons identifié des gènes spécifiques aux souches d’E. albertii ainsi que des gènes de virulence présents chez E. albertii par comparaisons génomiques, ce qui a permis de développer et optimiser un test PCR (réaction en chaîne par polymérase) visant l’identification génomique rapide et fiable d’E. albertii.

The stability of DNA is a critical factor for several diseases, the most prevalent of which is cancer. Several neurodegenerative and accelerated aging diseases are also characterized by genomic instability. The number and complexity of DNA repair pathways that human cells possess underscores the importance of genomic stability. These pathways ensure that damaged DNA is repaired and that a cells complement of DNA remains stable upon cell division. How one particular type of DNA alteration, a DNA loop, is processed in human cells was the focus of this study. We have employed an in vitro system to study defined DNA loop substrates by human nuclear extracts. The influence of either a 5 or 3 nick, the range of loop sizes processed, and the role of DNA mismatch repair, DNA nucleotide excision repair, and the Werner Syndrome helicase proteins were variables tested. The results indicate tha t DNA loops containing between 5 to 12 nucleotides are processed in a strand - specific manner when either a 5 or 3 nick is present , with repair being targeted solely to the nicked strand . This repair occurs by both mismatch repair dependent and independent pathways. The processing of DNA loops containing 30 nucleotides in length is directed either by a 5 nick, or by the loop itself, but not by a 3 nick. The nick independent pathway results solely in loop removal. The large loop pathway is independent of mismatch repair, nucleotide excision repair, and the WRN helicase/exonuclease protein. Both of the 5 nick directed pathways occur by excision that initiates at the pre- existing nick and proceeds towards the loop along the shortest path between the nick and loop. DNA resynthesis occurs using either DNA polymerase , , or and also initiates at the pre-existing 5 nick. The 3 nick directed intermediate loop repair pathway proceeds in a similar fashion, likely after a nick is made 5 to the loop region on the strand that contained the pre-existing nick. DNA synthesis inhibition has only a minor affect on the nick independent loop removal pathway as only a short tract of DNA surrounding the loop site is processed. In total, the results point to at least 3 novel pathways that process DNA loops that likely contribute to total genomic stability.

Defective DNA repair capacity has been shown to be a common feature of cancer, and loss of function mutations in 'stability' genes that normally maintain the integrity of the genome may prove a key rate-limiting step in carcinogenesis. Since even genetically unstable cells require some repair functionality to maintain viability, these cancers likely exhibit an over-reliance on other DNA repair pathways for survival. Therapeutically targeting backup repair processes in such tumours represents a novel means by which to achieve selective tumour toxicity. Full exploitation of these synthetic lethal interactions will require an in-depth knowledge of the genetic basis of DNA repair in combination with an armoury of small molecule inhibitors of cellular targets. To this end, we have designed, optimised and run two high-throughput cell-based screens to identify genes and small molecules that can modulate mismatch repair (MMR) activity. Key to these screening strategies are the resistance of cells with dysfunctional MMR to a range of cytotoxic drugs, including the alkylating agent N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine (MNNG). By exploiting this MMR-dependent toxicity we have assayed for siRNA and small molecules that permit the survival of MNNG-treated MMR-proficient cells to levels comparable to MMR-deficient cells, and which therefore represent putative MMR modulating agents. A screen of 571 siRNA for gene depletions that reduce MNNG sensitivity by at least two population standard deviations identified 10 genes of potential interest, and included the four canonical MMR genes, MSH2 (2.87 ± 0.28 (Z ± SE)), MSH6 (4.87 ± 0.06), MLH1 (3.42 ± 0.43) and PMS2 (3.36 ± 0.44). TDG represented an unexpected hit that decreased MNNG sensitivity by 2.55 ± 0.04 population standard deviations. However, clonogenic survival experiments found TDG depletion to be contextual synthetic lethal within an MMR-null background when treated with MNNG, reducing HCT116 clonogenicity by 37% (p < 0.001). Moreover, TDG knockdown increased the number of 53 binding protein 1 (53bp1) foci in MMR-proficient cells by 40% and MMR–deficient cells by 27% following MNNG exposure (p < 0.001). Combined with a failure to replicate the primary screen result, the role for TDG in the response to MNNG could be explained solely through its established role as a member of the base excision repair pathway. A second screen of the NCI Diversity I and II small molecule libraries (n=1786) was conducted to identify putative MMR inhibitors. Subsequent analysis revealed NSC197049 to increase cellular viability of MNNG treated cells by 3.60±0.32 population standard deviations and was successfully validated as a hit. Co-treatment of NSC197049 with MNNG conferred dose-dependent chemoprotection independently of MMR status and cell line, an effect that was lost if NSC197049 was pre- or post-treated. The protection was associated with a reduction in MNNG-dependent 53bp1 foci of 60% in MMR proficient cells and 15% in MMR deficient cells (p < 0.001), together with a marked reduction of > 80% in subG1 content at 48 hours post-MNNG that was independent of MMR status. Interestingly, the characteristic G2/M arrest of MNNG-treated MMR-proficient cells remained intact (~40% arrested). Taken together, these observations are not consistent with NSC197049 acting as an inhibitor of MMR. Dithiolthiones have been described as chemoprotective agents that induce antioxidant defences, whilst we have found NSC197049 phenocopies known antioxidants ascorbic acid and glutathione in protecting against MNNG-induced toxicity. NSC197049 may therefore act by bolstering cellular antioxidant defences. The precise mechanism may be novel, since the proto-typical dithiolthione, Oltipraz, failed to be protective in this study. In summary, we have confirmed that MMR is the primary determinant of MNNG sensitivity, and found that TDG is unlikely to be involved in MMR. We have also identified a novel chemoprotective small molecule that is unlikely to represent an MMR inhibitor, but that might be useful in cancer chemoprevention.

In humans, multi enzymatic processes are involved in maintaining DNA stability and cellular homeostasis. Cells undergo several episodes to survive and protect itself in daily basis. Accumulation of DNA errors and breaks are repaired by dynamic machinery, such as mismatch repair (MMR), replication-related process. In presented diploma thesis, we report the studied MMR pathway and its involvement in malignancy of epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC). Our working hypothesis postulated that core genes of MMR, such as MLH1 and MSH2 are down-regulated in malignant cells. Cells therefore become incapable to repair accumulating DNA damage, undergo apoptosis or most likely uncontrolled proliferation. Above mentioned genes may also be silenced in cancer patients at transcription, translation or epigenetic levels. Our aims were to clarify and to investigate the importance of MMR based on mRNA transcription, protein stability and promoter hypermethylation on a set of major MMR genes, particularly MLH1, MSH2, PMS1, MLH3, MSH6, MSH3, and PMS2. In our study, we analysed samples from 63 epithelial ovarian cancer patients and 12 non-malignant reference tissues using RT-qPCR, MS-HRM, and Western Blotting methods. Consequently, our results show down-regulation of all MMR genes except for MSH2 (up-regulated) in tumor...

The DNA Mismatch repair (MMR) pathway is responsible for the repair of base-base mismatches and insertion/deletion loops, formed during DNA replication. Mutations in MMR genes significantly increase the predisposition to cancer with MMR deficiency estimated to be present in 15-17 % of all colorectal cancers. 5-fluorouracil is the main treatment for advanced colorectal cancer however the majority of studies suggest that MMR deficient tumours are more resistant to 5-fluorouracil than MMR proficient tumours. Therefore, there is a critical clinical need to identify novel therapeutics to treat these tumours. To this end, we have performed a high-throughput compound screen, to identify compounds that cause selective lethality in MMR deficient cell lines. We identified the potassium-sparing diuretic drug, Triamterene, as selectively lethal in vitro and in vivo in MMR deficient cell lines. Our data suggest that this selectivity is through its antifolate activity, leading to the accumulation of reactive oxygen species and DNA double strand breaks in MMR deficient cells. Interestingly, we identified a requirement, for thymidylate synthase expression, the only de novo enzyme for dTTP synthesis for the Triamterene cytotoxicity. NRF2 and NRF2-induced antioxidants were regulated upon Triamterene treatment and thymidylate synthase silencing, therefore suggesting a role for the antioxidant response in Triamterene toxicity. Taken together, our results suggest Triamterene as a promising novel therapeutic for the treatment of MMR deficient cancers. In order to identify novel therapeutics to treat MMR deficient tumours, we have also performed a high-throughput siRNA screen, to identify genes that cause selective lethality in MMR deficient cell lines. We identified AURKA gene as synthetically lethal in MSH6 deficient cell lines which suggests AURKA as a promising novel therapeutic target for the treatment of MMR deficient cancers. Taken together, in this PhD thesis we have identified two novel therapeutic strategies for the treatment of MMR deficient cancers.

La protéine Mlh1 eucaryote est un acteur central de la voie de réparation des mésappariements (MMR). Chez la levure, Mlh1 forme un hétérodimère via sa région C-terminale avec les endonucléases Pms1 et Mlh3. La région C-terminale de Mlh1 est également en interactions avec l’exonucléase Exo1 du MMR et deux protéines Ntg2 et Sgs1 qui sont impliquées dans d’autres voies de réparation. Dans un premier temps, nous avons identifié et caractérisé le site d’interaction de Mlh1 avec les protéines Exo1, Ntg2 et Sgs1, qui utilisent un même motif de 5 acides aminés, (R/K)SK(Y/F)F appelé motif MIP pour Mlh1 Interacting Protein. Nous avons montré que ces 3 protéines interagissent en un même site, appelé site S2. Nous avons identifié 10 positions de Mlh1 impliquées dans le site S2 et caractérisé par microcalorimétrie, une affinité micromolaire entre des peptides contenant le motif MIP et la région C-terminale de Mlh1. Nous avons montré que les protéines EXO1 et BLM humaines qui possèdent également un motif MIP, interagissent spécifiquement avec MLH1 humain par ce motif. Dans un second temps, nous avons résolu la structure cristallographique à 2.6Å de la région C-terminale de l’hétérodimère Mlh1*Pms1. Le site d’hétérodimèrisation présente une surface d’interaction supérieure à celle observée dans les homodimères de MutL bactériens. La structure résolue confirme le rôle des 10 acides aminés de Mlh1 identifiés lors de la caractérisation du site S2. La structure du site endonucléase de Pms1 révèle la présence de deux atomes de zinc chelatés par 5 acides aminés de Pms1 et le dernier acide aminé de la protéine Mlh1, la cystéine C769. Cette première structure d’une région C-terminale d’un complexe Mlh1*Pms1 eucaryote permet d’analyser la position des nombreux mutants ponctuels de MLH1 humain associés à des cancers du côlon HNPCC. / Eucaryotic Mlh1 is a core component of mismatch repair pathway (MMR). In yeast organisms, Mlh1 forms heterodimer with its C-terminal region with endonucleases Pms1 and Mlh3. The C-terminal region of Mlh1 is also involved in interactions with MMR exonuclease Exo1 and two proteins, Ntg2 and Sgs1, which are involved in other DNA repair pathways. First, we identified and charaterised the interaction site between Mlh1 and proteins Exo1, Ntg2, and Sgs1, that share the same motif of 5 amino acids, (R/K)SK(Y/F)F, named MIP box for Mlh1 Interacting Protein. We showed that these 3 proteins bind to the same site, named site S2. 10 positions of Mlh1 important for interactions on site S2 were identified and a micromolar affinity was measured by calorimetry between the C-terminal region of Mlh1 and peptides containing a MIP box. We showed that human EXO1 and BLM specifically with human MLH1 through their MIP box. Secondly, we solved the X-ray structure of the C-terminal region of Mlh1*Pms1 heterodimer at 2.6Å. The structure shows that the surface buried upon heterodimerisation is higher in eucaryotes than in MutL homodimers. The structure confirms the overall structure of the site S2 predicted in the first part of this study. The endonuclease site of Pms1 presents in the crystal two zinc atoms that are bound by five Pms1 residues and the last residue of Mlh1 chain, cystein C769. This structure represents the first image of the C-terminal region of an eucaryote Mlh1*Pms1 heterodimer. It allows localizing the positions of human MLH1 mutants associated with colon cancers named HNPCC.

To identify novel therapeutic targets for basal-like breast cancer (BLBC) subtype, we investigated several DNA repair mechanisms associated with maintenance of high genomic instability for cell survival in cancer cells. We identified that the mismatch repair proteins, MSH2 and MSH6 (referred to as MSH2/6 hereafter), are highly elevated across BLBC samples. High expression level of MSH2/6 in BLBC is associated with worse prognosis and survivability for patients. Therefore, we knocked out MSH2 in BLBC cell lines and performed in vivo xenograft and syngeneic mice model studies to find significant attenuation of tumor growth in MSH2 KO group. Also, MSH2-deficient BLBC cells have increased rate of new mutations. Additionally, we tested the efficacy of conventional chemotherapeutics and radiation treatment that would further tip the genomic instability in MSH2-deficient BLBC cells towards cell death, but found them to be ineffective. Next, we performed high-throughput screening of 1280 FDA-approved compounds to discover that calcium channel blockers preferentially kill MSH2-deficient BLBC cells. This was likely due to association of significantly mutated pathways that involved calcium ion binding and calmodulin binding sites. Here we provide evidence of an alternative therapeutic strategy targeting DNA repair genes in BLBC patients utilizing bioinformatics analysis, high-throughput drug screening, in vitro,and vivoexperimentalmodels.

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a major source of morbidity and mortality in the Western world. Approximately 15% of all CRCs develop via the mutator pathway, which results from a deficiency of mismatch repair (MMR) system and leads to genome-wide microsatellite instability (MSI). MLH1 promoter hypermethylation accounts for the majority of MSI CRCs. Numerous single nucleotide polymorphisms have been identified in MMR genes, however their functional roles in affecting MMR system, and therefore susceptibility to MSI CRCs, are unknown. This study uses a multidisciplinary approach combining molecular genetics, epigenetics, and epidemiology to examine the contribution of MMR gene polymorphisms in CRC. Among a panel of MMR SNPs examined, the MLH1 (-93G>A) promoter polymorphism (rs1800734) was shown to be associated with increased risk of MSI CRCs in two Canadian populations, Ontario and Newfoundland. Functional studies of the MLH1-93G>A polymorphism indicate that it has weak effects on the core promoter activity, although it dramatically reduces activity of the shorter promoter constructs in a panel of cell lines. Furthermore, MLH1 gene shares a bi-directional promoter with EMP2AIP1 gene, and the MLH1-93G>A polymorphism increases the activity of the reverse, EPM2AIP1 promoter. Examination of alternative role of the MLH1-93G>A polymorphism in MSI-H CRCs led to evaluation of a 500-kilobase pair chromosome 3 region around the MLH1 gene and identification of two additional SNPs, rs749072 and rs13098279, which are in strong linkage disequilibrium with rs1800734. All three SNPs showed strong associations with MLH1 promoter methylation, loss of MLH1 protein expression, and MSI-H CRCs in three populations, Ontario, Newfoundland, and Seattle. Such findings potentially implicate genetic susceptibility to DNA methylation. Logistic regression models for MSI-H versus non-MSI-H CRCs demonstrate that models including MLH1 IHC status and MLH1 promoter methylation status fit the data most parsimoniously in all three populations combined, however, when rs1800734/rs749072/rs13098279 was added to this model, polymorphisms no longer remained significant indicating that the observed associations of these polymorphisms with the MSI-H CRCs occur through their effect on DNA methylation. This study identified a novel mechanism in which common missense alterations may contribute to complex disease.

B cells produce a diverse array of antibody specificities that are of low affinity during the initial phase of a humoral immune response. However, somatic hypermutation of the rearranged V region in the immunoglobulin locus generates new antibody affinities, accompanied by the selection of B cells that produce superior antibody affinities. Somatic hypermutation is initiated by the conversion of G:C base pairs to G:U lesions by the enzyme activation induced cytosine deaminase. Left unrepaired, G:U lesions will give rise to transition mutations at G:C base pairs, but are converted to transition and transversion mutations at G:C and A:T base pairs by the paradoxical participation of the base excision repair and mismatch repair pathways. The mismatch repair pathway, which evolved to correct errors produced during DNA replication, is co-opted by hypermutating B cells to produce A:T mutations via the processing of G:U lesions. This process requires the mismatch repair components Msh2, Msh6, and Exo1, but is additionally dependent upon the translesional DNA polymerase eta, a known A:T mutator, and on ubiquitinated PCNA, an initiator of translesion synthesis. The presence of certain types of lesions in the template strand during DNA replication leads to the activation of translesion synthesis. I propose that a similar mechanism operates during somatic hypermutation to activate translesion synthesis and recruit DNA polymerase eta. Our model suggests that mismatch repair-generated single-stranded DNA tracts contain abasic sites produced as a result of uracil excision by uracil-N-glycosylase. Synthesis opposite abasic sites activates translesion synthesis and results in the recruitment of polymerase eta and the subsequent production of A:T mutations. In this thesis, I present data from hypermutating murine B cells and the B cell line Ramos to support this model, demonstrating that the base excision repair and mismatch repair pathways cooperate during somatic hypermutation to generate A:T mutations. In addition, I explore the role of the Mre11-Rad50-Nbs1 complex in its contribution to A:T mutations in Ramos cells. Taken together, these studies demonstrate that conversion of classical DNA repair pathways into mutation-generating processes is driven by the unique environment of the V region in hypermutating B cells.

Head and neck squamous cell carcinomas (HNSCCs) most commonly develop in older patients (≥60 years of age) with a history of tobacco and alcohol use. However, young individuals (≤45 years of age) can also develop HNSCC, often without common risk factors. Increasing evidence shows that Human Papillomavirus (HPV) infection is associated with particular HNSCC sites (e.g. oropharynx). We assessed the Roche Linear Array HPV Genotyping Test in several lesions and then examined the prevalence of HPV in HNSCCs from young and older patients. HPV infection was most prevalent in oropharyngeal cancers (16/22, 73%), rarely found in oral cavity cancers (2/53, 4%), and other head and neck sites (1/17, 6%). HPV positive tumors were associated with patients that were >40 and <60 years old (p=0.02). The absence or shortened time of carcinogen exposure from common risk factors and the development of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) at an early age suggest aberrant genetic events that are different than those in OSSCs from older patients. We used Affymetrix SNP 6.0 arrays to genomically profile oral tumors from young and older patients. Tumors from young patients showed different regions/genes of copy number alterations than those from older patient tumors. An increase of regions of loss of heterozygosity (LOH) in tumors from older patients was observed, and there was a high prevalence of copy number neutral LOH on chromosome 9 in tumors from young and older patients. These data suggest different genetic mechanisms in these patient groups. We have previously shown that HNSCCs from younger patients exhibited a high incidence of microsatellite instability (MSI), a marker of defective mismatch repair (MMR). Deregulated mRNA levels of hPMS1, hPMS2 and hMLH1 were observed and absent/low expression of hPMS1, hPMS2 and hMLH1 protein levels were observed in >50% of OSCCs. No mutations were observed in hPMS1 and hPMS2 and no significant differences of MSI or LOH were observed across genomic loci between tumors of young and older patients. The role of these genetic mechanisms in oral cancer appears complex; studies such as ours should further improve our knowledge of the molecular mechanisms leading to early-onset oral carcinomas.