Participation of metabolism in stem cell differentiation has been largely disregarded until recently. Here, functional proteomics and metabolomics were performed to unveil the mitochondrial and nuclear metabolism during dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO)-induced differentiation of P19 cells. DMSO-treated cells were shown to exhibit increased glycolytic enzymes activities and fuel pyruvate into oxidative phosphorylation. Subsequently, enzymes of electron transport chain also had elevated activities upon differentiation. These changes in mitochondrial metabolism were concomitant with increased mitochondrial biogenesis as PGC-1α expression was higher in the differentiated cells. To study nuclear metabolism, particular focus was placed on delineating a potential role of nuclear lactate dehydrogenase (LDH). Nuclear LDH was found to exhibit higher expression in pluripotent cells. NAD+ generated from LDH reaction was discovered to promote histone deacetylation via sirtuin-1 (SIRT1). Drastic alterations in mitochondrial and nuclear metabolism during differentiation point to a pivotal role of metabolism in deciding the final destination of stem cells.

Le tabagisme aggrave de nombreuses maladies inflammatoires chroniques (BPCO, maladie de Crohn, arthrite rhumatoïde, psoriasis) associées à la sous-population de lymphocytes T CD4+ (LT CD4+) inflammatoires sécrétant l’IL-17 (Th17). Le tabagisme est associé à une augmentation en nombre et en proportion, du nombre de Th17 systémiques et pulmonaires, contrastant avec la rareté habituelle de ces cellules dans les tissus périphériques-sites d’inflammation. Le tabagisme est associé à l’augmentation de la sénescence des cellules pulmonaires récemment impliquée dans la pathogénèse de la BPCO. Les mécanismes responsables de l’augmentation des Th17 chez les fumeurs sont encore inconnus, et le rôle potentiel de la sénescence dans cette augmentation et la modification des fonctions des Th17 n’a jamais été exploré.Dans ce travail, nous avons fait l’hypothèse que les Th17 présentent une susceptibilité augmentée à la sénescence induite par l’exposition à la fumée de cigarette, en comparaison des autres sous-populations de LT CD4+, qui serait responsable de l’augmentation des Th17, et contribuerait à l’aggravation de leur potentiel inflammatoire. Nous avons analysé la susceptibilité des Th17 à la sénescence induite par l’exposition au condensat de FC (CFC), et le rôle de la voie de signalisation ERK1/2 dans ce phénomène. Nous avons également analysé le rôle des espèces réactives de l’oxygène (ERO), impliquées, d’une part dans la régulation de l’activation de ERK1/2, et d’autre part dans la sénescence cellulaire.Des lymphocytes T CD4+ CCR6+ Th17 et T CD4+ CCR6- quiescents de donneurs sains ont été exposés in vitro au CFC. La production d’ERO est mesurée en analysant l’oxydation de la sonde H2DCF-DA (cytométrie de flux). La sénescence est évaluée en analysant l’expression de p16INK4a (ImmunoFluorescence). L’analyse de l’expression des cytokines (Luminex/CBA) évalue le potentiel inflammatoire des cellules.Nos résultats montrent que les LT CD4+ Th17 quiescents exposés au CFC présentent une augmentation de différents marqueurs de sénescence : activité -galactosidase, expression des inhibiteurs du cycle cellulaire p16INK4a et ATF3. L’exposition au CFC modifie le profil sécrétoire des Th17 quiescents et induit leur sécrétion d’IL-8. Nous montrons que la voie des MAPKs ERK1/2 est impliquée dans l’induction du phénotype sénescent des Th17 en réponse à une exposition au CFC. La sur-expression de p16INK4a est associée à une activation et une translocation nucléaire de ERK1/2 plus importante dans les Th17. Le traitement antioxydant par la NAC, diminue l’expression des ERO et de p16INK4a induite par l’exposition au CFC dans toutes les sous-populations de LT CD4+, mais maintient la production d’ERO et l’expression de p16INK4a plus importantes dans les Th17 en comparaison des autres sous-populations de LT CD4+. Le traitement par l’inhibiteur du complexe III de la chaîne respiratoire mitochondriale, l’antimycine, maintient la production d’ERO plus importante dans les Th17, mais l’expression de p16INK4a est diminuée à des niveaux comparables dans tous les LT CD4+. En revanche, le traitement par l’agent découplant, le FCCP, diminue l’expression de p16INK4a et la production d’ERO à des niveaux comparables dans tous les LT CD4+, et abroge les différences de production d’ERO entre les Th17 et les T CD4+ CCR6-.Nous montrons que les lymphocytes Th17 humains présentent une susceptibilité plus importante à la sénescence induite par l’exposition au CFC en comparaison des autres sous-populations de LT CD4+. Nos résultats suggèrent que l’activité mitochondriale basale plus importante dans les Th17, est responsable de la plus grande susceptibilité des Th17 à la sénescence après exposition au CFC. Enfin, nous montrons pour la première fois qu’un découplage modéré de la chaîne respiratoire mitochondriale est une solution efficace pour prévenir la sénescence des Th17 et pourrait être une stratégie anti-inflammatoire dans les maladies chroniques associées aux Th17 / Smoking worsens chronic inflammatory diseases (COPD, Crohn disease, rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis) associated with inflammatory CD4+ IL-17 secreting lymphocytes (Th17). Smoking is associated with an absolute number and proportion increase, at both systemic and pulmonary levels, of Th17 cells. This increase of Th17 cells in smokers contrasts with their usual rarity in peripheral tissues and inflammatory sites. Most of the knowledge about the effects of cigarette smoke exposure comes from COPD studies, and, in COPD increased senescence of pulmonary cells has been associated to the pathogenesis of the disease. The mechanisms responsible for the increase of Th17 cells are still unknown, and the potential role of senescence in this increase and functional modifications of Th17 in smokers has never been explored.In this study, we hypothesized that Th17 present a higher susceptibility to cigarette smoke-induced senescence, as compared to other CD4+ T lymphocytes subsets, which could be responsible for the increased number and proportion of Th17 in smokers, and the higher inflammatory potential of these cells. We analyzed senescence susceptibility of Th17 exposed to cigarette smoke condensate (CSC), and the potential role of ERK1/2 signaling pathway in this phenomenon. We also analyzed the potential role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) known to be implicated, on one hand in ERK1/2 activation, and on another hand in cellular senescence.Quiescent CCR6+ Th17 and CCR6- CD4+ T lymphocytes of healthy donors are exposed in vitro to cigarette smoke extract (CSE). ROS production is measured by H2DCF-DA oxidation (flow cytometry). Senescence is evaluated by p16INK4a expression (ImmunoFluorescence). Expression of relevant cytokines (Luminex/CBA) evaluated inflammatory potential.Our results show that quiescent CD4+ Th17 exposed to CSE present an increase of senescence markers: -galactosidase activity and expression of cell cycle inhibitors p16INK4a and ATF3. Moreover, CSE exposure modifies Th17 secretion pattern and increases IL-8 secretion. Our results also show that ERK1/2 MAPK pathway is implicated in Th17 senescent phenotype induction upon CSE exposure. The overexpression of p16INK4a is associated with a higher activation and a nuclear translocation of ERK1/2 in Th17 cells. Treatment with the anti-oxidant NAC reduces CSE-induced ROS and p16INK4a expression in all CD4+ T cell subsets, but the higher production of ROS and higher p16INK4a expression in Th17 as compared to other CD4+ T cells are maintained. Treatment with mitochondrial complex III inhibitor, antimycine, maintains the higher production of ROS in Th17 as compared to other CD4+ T lymphocytes, whereas p16INK4a expression is reduced to the same level in all subsets. Conversely, treatment with the mitochondrial decoupling agent, FCCP, reduces p16INK4a expression to the same level in Th17 as in other CD4+ T cell subsets, and abrogates the difference of ROS production between Th17 compared to CCR6- CD4+ T lymphocytes.We show that human Th17 lymphocytes present a higher senescence susceptibility to CSE exposure as compared to other CD4+ T lymphocytes sub-populations. Moreover, our results suggest that a higher mitochondrial activity in Th17 in steady state is responsible for the Th17 higher senescence susceptibility upon CSC exposure. Finally, we show for the first time, that mild mitochondrial respiratory chain uncoupling is an effective solution to prevent Th17 senescent phenotype and could represent an anti-inflammatory strategy in Th17-associated chronic inflammatory diseases

Vitamin D has been connected with increased intramyocellular lipid (IMCL) mitochondrial function in skeletal muscle. It is also shown to prevent lipotoxicity in several tissues, but this has not yet been examined in skeletal muscle. Perilipin 2 (PLIN2), a lipid droplet protein upregulated with vitamin D treatment, is integral to managing IMCL capacity and lipid oxidation in skeletal muscle. Increased lipid storage and oxidation is associated with increased tolerance to a hyperlipidic environment and resistance to lipotoxicity. Therefore, I hypothesized that vitamin D increases β-oxidation and lipid turnover though a PLIN2 mediated mechanism, thereby preventing lipotoxicity. This hypothesis was divided into two specific aims: 1) Characterize the effect of vitamin D and PLIN2 on lipid turnover and β-oxidation in mature myotubes, and 2) Determine the role of vitamin D and PLIN2 in regulating key markers of lipotoxicity. To address these aims, cells were treated with or without vitamin D, palmitate, and PLIN2 siRNA in an eight group, 2x2x2 design. Key experiments included quantitative real time polymerase chain reaction for markers of lipid accumulation, lipolysis, and lipotoxicity; Seahorse oxygen consumption assay; 14C-palmitate oxidation assay; and analyses of lipid accumulation and profile. Failure of the palmitate treatment to produce a reliable model for lipotoxicity resulted in negative data for Aim 2 of this dissertation and a focus on vitamin D and PLIN2 knockdown treatments as a four group, 2x2 model. Aim 1 showed that vitamin D reliably increases markers of lipolysis and lipid accumulation. Most of these markers were in turn decreased after PLIN2 knockdown, and DGAT2 exhibited an interaction effect between the two treatments. Contrary to our hypothesis and some published research, PLIN2 knockdown did not prevent lipid accumulation. Vitamin D increased oxygen consumption, especially consumption driven by mitochondrial complex II. PLIN2 knockdown decreased oxygen consumption and demonstrated an interaction effect specific to mitochondrial complex II. Data in this dissertation show that vitamin D increases mitochondrial function, and these effects are at least in part accomplished through a PLIN2 mediated mechanism. However, this work lacks the data required to make specific claims regarding β-oxidation and lipid turnover. This research is some of the first to show that PLIN2 knockdown carries negative impacts for skeletal muscle mitochondria and makes valuable contributions to general knowledge of how vitamin D and lipid storage impact muscle health and function. This ultimately provides additional evidence to advocate for vitamin D supplementation as a means of improving musculoskeletal health and function. Future research should investigate how vitamin D and PLIN2 impact markers of lipotoxicity in skeletal muscle.

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A enzima aldeído desidrogenase 2 (ALDH2), localizada na matriz mitocondrial, é crucial na manutenção do balanço intracelular de aldeídos. Atualmente, estima-se que 8% da população mundial apresentam uma mutação pontual no gene da ALDH2 (E487K, ALDH2*2) que confere perda de até 95% na atividade enzimática. No presente projeto utilizamos camundongos knock-in ALDH2*2 para avaliar o impacto da mutação ALDH2 (E487K) na disfunção cardíaca induzida pelo infarto do miocárdio. Observamos que os animais mutantes possuem a atividade da ALDH2 reduzida e desenvolvem disfunção cardíaca e remodelamento ventricular semelhante aos animais selvagens após infarto do miocárdio. Porém, os animais com a mutação E487K possuem uma significante redução no consumo de oxigênio basal (respirometria), máximo (teste físico até a exaustão) e em mitocôndria cardíaca isolada, quando comparados aos animais selvagens. Por fim, o tratamento sustentado com Alda-1 (ativador da ALDH2) foi efetivo em restaurar a função cardíaca dos animais infartados, independente do genótipo. / Aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 (ALDH2), located in the mitochondrial matrix, is critical for the maintenance of cellular redox balance by removing reactive aldehydes produced during oxidative stress. It is estimated that 8% of the world population have a point mutation in the ALDH2 gene (E487K), which reduces its enzymatic activity by 95%. Here, we study the impact of the E487K variant of ALDH2 on myocardial infarction-induced heart failure, using ALDH2 E487K knock-in mice. We observed that mice carrying the ALDH2 variant have reduced ALDH2 activity and protein levels compared to WT mice. Despite of reduced oxidative metabolism, animals with ALDH2 mutation develop cardiac dysfunction and ventricular remodeling equivalent to WT animals after myocardial infarction. Finally, sustained Alda-1 treatment (ALDH2 activator) during 6 weeks improved cardiac function of infarcted animals, regardless of genotype.

A doença arterial periférica (DAP) é uma síndrome degenerativa multifatorial que acomete principalmente idosos e tem como principais características a redução da qualidade de vida e o aumento da mortalidade cardiovascular. Dentre as limitações funcionais impostas pela doença, a mais evidente é a piora da capacidade locomotora decorrente da claudicação intermitente (períodos alternados de isquemia e reperfusão). Atualmente não existem tratamentos farmacológicos capazes de bloquear a progressão da DAP, caracterizada pela redução da capacidade oxidativa muscular, excessivo estresse oxidativo e consequente acúmulo de aldeídos reativos no leito afetado. Com base nisso, o presente trabalho visou caracterizar o papel da enzima aldeído desidrogenase 2 na progressão da DAP. Para isso caracterizamos o modelo animal de DAP, e verificamos que camundongos C57Bl/6 após a cirurgia de oclusão de fluxo apresentam redução da atividade catalítica da enzima ALDH2. Fato acompanhado por uma intolerância ao esforço físico, atrofia e prejuízo na contratilidade muscular, além de desarranjo sarcomérico e mitocondrial. Em modelo de cultura celular, a inativação da enzima ALDH2, após hipóxia e reoxigenação levou à prejuízo na angiogênese e disfunção mitocondrial. Mesmo fenômeno observado nos animais DAP tratados com inibidor, que desenvolveram disfunção mitocondrial e pobre resposta à atividade física. Em modelo de genético de redução da atividade da enzima ALDH2, foi possível ver exacerbada disfunção muscular. Baseado nesses resultados, acreditamos que a enzima ALDH2 desempenha um importante papel na progressão da doença arterial periférica, sendo um possível alvo terapêutico. / Peripheral arterial disease (PAD) is a multifactorial disease which mainly affects elderly reducing quality of life and increasing cardiovascular mortality. Among the functional limitations imposed by the disease, the progressive worsening of locomotor capacity arising from intermittent periods of ischemia and reperfusion, are related to reduced muscle oxidative capacity, excessive oxidative stress and consequent accumulation of reactive aldehydes in the affected leg. We recently demonstrated that lipid peroxidation induced-toxic aldehydes accumulation contributes to ischemic heart disease progression. Interestingly, oxidation of these aldehydes through aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 (ALDH2) activation is cardioprotective. Based on that, this work characterizes the role of ALDH2 during PAD progression. The PAD animal model presents decreased skeletal muscle ALDH2 enzyme activity associated with exercise intolerance, muscle atrophy, poor muscle contraction, skeletal muscle sarcomeric disruption and giant mitochondrial accumulation. After ALDH2 inhibitor treatment, cell culture submitted to hypoxia/reoxygenation stress showed no angiogenesis and mitochondrial dysfunction. Similar data was seen at animal model, where PAD mice treated with ALDH2 inhibitor shows mitochondrial dysfunction, greater atrophy and affected physical exercise response. Also, transgenic mice for ALDH2 (which has a reduced ALDH2 activity) submitted to PAD showed a smaller muscle contraction, compared to wild type PAD mice. Our data points to ALDH2 as an important therapeutic target to develop new therapy strategies to counteract PAD progression.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / A toxoplasmose é uma zoonose amplamente distribuída que afeta mais de um terço da população mundial e de grande importância na saúde pública. A maioria das infecções em humanos por Toxoplasma gondii é assintomática. A toxoplasmose é amplamente investigada visto que se apresenta como uma doença grave em pessoas imunodeprimidas (portadores da síndrome da imunodeficiência adquirida (SIDA), não tratados, indivíduos transplantados, paciente em tratamento quimioterápico ou em uso de drogas supressoras e gestantes). A toxoplasmose congênita frequentemente pode levar ao aborto espontâneo ou até mesmo resultar na formação de crianças com algum grau de atraso no desenvolvimento mental e/ou físicos, deste modo, a transmissão congênita pode ser muito mais importante do que se pensava, pois os parasitos encontrados na circulação sanguinea são capazes de infectar as células endoteliais dos vasos e os tecidos circunjacentes, podendo resultar no encistamento do T. gondii. Atualmente a toxoplasmose vem sendo investigada devido a sua associação a inúmeras outras doenças, assim, estudos sobre a evolução da infecção por T. gondii em diferentes tipos de células hospedeiras se fazem necessários para uma abordagem terapêutica adequada. Ao invadir a célula hospedeira o parasito possui a capacidade de recrutar as mitocôndrias promovendo mudanças na organização mitocondrial ao longo da progressão da infecção, garantindo um ambiente favorável a sua multiplicação. Diante disso, investigamos se o parasito possui a capacidade de interferir no metabolismo mitocondrial e na resposta apoptótica da célula endotelial. O presente trabalho teve como objetivo analisar o metabolismo mitocondrial através da respirometria de alta-resolução e da resposta apoptótica através do western blotting das células endoteliais da veia umbilical humana (HUVEC) infectadas por 2, 6 e 20 horas por taquizoítos de T. gondii. A respirometria de alta-resolução revelou que o parasito interfere no metabolismo energético da célula hospedeira. A análise do conteúdo de proteínas da família Bcl-2 por western blotting revelou maior estímulo apoptótico no tempo inicial de infecção, quando comparado aos demais tempos. Os resultados dos conteúdos de caspase 3, proteína efetora da apoptose, não demonstrou diferença nos tempos iniciais de infecção Entretanto, em tempos mais tardios, o conteúdo de caspase 3 mostrou-se significativamente aumentado quando comparado às HUVEC não infectadas. A dinâmica de replicação do parasito foi observada através do monitoramento pelo sistema Time-Lapse Nikon BioStation IMQ em tempo real das células infectadas por T.gondii. Portanto, nossos resultados sugerem que o protozoário ao recrutar as mitocôndrias da célula hospedeira interfere no metabolismo mitocondrial e na modulação da apoptose para garantir um ambiente favorável a sua multiplicação. / Toxoplasmosis is a widespread zoonosis that affects more than a third of the world population and of great public health importance. Most human infections with Toxoplasma gondii are asymptomatic. Toxoplasmosis is widely investigated since it presents itself as a serious disease in immunocompromised persons (holders of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), untreated, transplant recipients, patients undergoing chemotherapy or suppressing drugs and pregnant). Congenital toxoplasmosis can often lead to miscarriage or even result in the formation of children with some degree of developmental delay mental and / or physical, thus congenital transmission may be much more important than previously thought, because the parasites found In the bloodstream are able to infect endothelial cells of blood vessels and surrounding tissues, which may result in encystment T. gondii. Currently toxoplasmosis has been investigated because of their association with other diseases, so, studies of the evolution of T.gondii infection in different types of host cells are necessary for an adequate therapeutic approach. To invade the host cell, the parasite has the ability to recruit mitochondria promoting changes in mitochondrial organization along the progression of infection, ensuring a favorable environment for their multiplication. Therefore, we investigated whether the parasite has the ability to interfere with mitochondrial metabolism and apoptotic response of endothelial cells. This study aimed to analyze the mitochondrial metabolism by high-resolution respirometry and apoptotic response by western blotting of endothelial cells of human umbilical vein (HUVEC) infected for 2, 6 and 20 hours per tachyzoites of T. gondii. The high-resolution respirometry revealed that the parasite interferes with the energy metabolism of the host cell. The analysis of the family protein content of Bcl-2 by western blotting revealed higher apoptotic stimulus at the initial time of infection, as compared to other times. The results of the contents of caspase 3 protein effector of apoptosis, showed no difference in the initial days of infection However, in more recent times, the content of caspase 3 was significantly increased when compared to non-infected HUVEC. The dynamics of parasite replication was observed by monitoring the system Time-Lapse Nikon BioStation IMQ in real time from infected cells by T. gondii. Therefore, our findings suggest that mitochondria in recruiting protozoan host cell interfere with mitochondrial metabolism and in the modulation of apoptosis to ensure a favorable environment for multiplication.