<p>One promising HIV-1 vaccine target is the membrane-proximal external region (MPER) of viral gp41. MPER is poorly immunogenic, however, the two rare neutralizing antibodies (NAbs), 2F5 and 4E10, bind to MPER with great neutralizing ability. Although their neutralizing mechanism represents a promising framework for the design of new HIV-1 liposomal vaccine candidates, this mechanism remains poorly understood. It is known that 2F5 and 4E10 are required to first associate with HIV-1 lipids before binding to the target MPER antigen, however, little is known about how lipid membranes contribute to NAb-antigen binding. To this end we have developed model membrane systems to study NAb and antigen lipid interactions. </p><p>We first created a surface plasmon resonance (SPR) spectroscopy based assay that monitors antibody binding to thiol monolayers, which mimic the surface chemical properties of lipid membranes. Next, we focused on mimicking the lipid phase organization (i.e., domain formation) of native membranes by using supported lipid bilayers (SLBs). We used simple SLB compositions to model the liquid-disordered (Ld) and gel phases. To model the HIV-1 envelope, we used a complex SLB composition that contains an Ld and liquid-ordered (Lo) phase. To reliably create model HIV-1 SLBs, we developed an SLB formation technique that uses amphipathic, &#945;-helical peptides as a catalyst to generate complex SLBs that have a high cholesterol content and contain multiple lipid types. For all SLB surfaces we used atomic force microscopy (AFM) to visualize membrane domains, antigen presentation, and antibody-membrane interactions.</p><p>Results from experiments using thiol surfaces showed that NAb binding to hydrophobic thiol surfaces was significantly greater than that of control monoclonal antibodies. This supports the hypothesis that these NAbs embed into the hydrophobic membrane core. Our results demonstrate that 2F5/4E10 do not interact with the highly ordered gel and Lo domains in the SLB but exclusively bind to the Ld phase. This suggests that 2F5/4E10 require low membrane order and weak lateral lipid-lipid interactions to insert into the hydrophobic membrane interior. Thus, vaccine liposomes that primarily contain an Ld phase are more likely to elicit the production of lipid reactive, 2F5- and 4E10-like antibodies, compared to liposomes that contain an Lo or gel phase. In the context of liposomal antigen presentation, our results show that the presence of the MPER656 antigen can severely limit the Ld area available for antibody interactions. Subsequently, this reduces the amount of MPER656 that is accessible for 2F5/4E10 binding, since MPER656 preferentially localizes to the Ld area. If Ld forming lipid components are used in vaccine liposomes, it is important to ensure that the presence of antigen does not inhibit large-scale Ld formation.</p> / Dissertation

Os hormônios peptídicos Angiotensina II (Ang II) e bradicinina (BK) ativam transdução de sinal através da ligação a Receptores Acoplados a Proteínas G (GPCR). Este trabalho propõe o estudo de propriedades conformacionais, através de espectroscopia de fluorescência da Ang II e BK e de seus análogos contendo o marcador de spin ácido 2,2,6,6-tetrametilpiperidina-1-oxil-4-amino-4-carboxílico, TOAC (TOAC1-Ang II, TOAC3-Ang II, TOAC0-BK, TOAC3-BK). Os peptídeos foram estudados em solução (efeito do pH) e também na presença de membranas modelo, micelas e bicamadas, formadas por anfifílicos zwitteriônicos ou aniônicos. Foi monitorada a fluorescência intrínseca dos resíduos aromáticos (Tyr4 na Ang II e Phe5 e Phe8 na BK). O efeito de supressão da fluorescência pelo TOAC foi utilizado para obter informação sobre a proximidade desse resíduo aos grupos fluoróforos. Foi observada dependência da fluorescência com o pH e regiões de pKs dos grupamentos ionizáveis. Os espectros evidenciaram também a interação peptídeo-membrana modelo. Interações mais fortes ocorreram entre os peptídeos e membranas com carga superficial negativa, evidenciando a importância de interações eletrostáticas para a ligação. Porém, interações hidrofóbicas também estão envolvidas, como verificado pela ligação dos peptídeos a membranas zwitteriônicas. Estudos com variação de pH também mostraram o papel dessa variável na interação peptídeo-membrana e a alteração de pKs de resíduos ionizáveis decorrentes da interação. A titulação com concentrações crescentes de membranas permitiu o cálculo das constantes de associação. A ligação a membranas é função da conformação dos peptídeos. Em particular, a presença de TOAC na posição 3 parece diminuir a afinidade desses análogos por membranas. Supressão de fluorescência foi efetuada empregando três diferentes abordagens: 1) supressão pela molécula aquossolúvel acrilamida, 2) supressão da fluorescência de fosfolipídeos contendo o fluoróforo NBD em diferentes posições da molécula pelos análogos marcados com TOAC, 3) supressão da fluorescência dos peptídeos por ésteres metílicos do ácido esteárico contendo o grupamento nitróxido em diferentes posições da cadeia. Esses estudos permitiram determinar a localização dos peptídeos na interface água-membrana. Medidas de anisotropia de fluorescência também evidenciaram a ligação dos peptídeos a membranas, revelando maior imobilidade dos mesmos nessas condições. Foi ainda estudado um peptídeo que contém os resíduos 92-100 (fEL1) do receptor AT1 de Ang II humano. Predições baseadas na estrutura cristalina da rodopsina estimam que essa seqüência localiza-se na primeira alça extra-celular do receptor. A seqüência contém a Tyr92, considerada um resíduo importante para a ligação hormônio-receptor. Resultados preliminares sugeriram que fEL1 interage com Ang II e TOAC1-Ang II, mas não com TOAC3-Ang II. Este último resultado provavelmente deve-se à dobra causada por TOAC que restringe a liberdade de movimento do esqueleto peptídico. Essa característica provavelmente determina a falta de atividade biológica de TOAC3-Ang II e TOAC3-BK, enquanto os análogos marcados no N-terminal retém atividade parcial (Nakaie et al., 2002). Tem sido proposto que peptídeos ligantes de GPCR se ligariam à bicamada lipídica e atingiriam seu receptor através da difusão pela bicamada. Em solução aquosa essas moléculas são flexíveis, existindo um equilíbrio dinâmico entre várias conformações. A ligação à bicamada lipídica estabilizaria uma ou algumas conformações, entre elas aquela que o ligante adota ao ligar-se ao receptor. O presente estudo contribui para a compreensão, a nível molecular, do processo de interação entre os hormônios peptídicos e membranas lipídicas. / The peptide hormones Angiotensin II (Ang II) and bradykinin (BK) trigger signal transduction by binding to G Protein Coupled Receptors (GPCR). This work proposes the study of conformational properties of Ang II and BK, as well as their analogues containing the spin label 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl-4-amino-4-carboxylic acid, TOAC (TOAC1-Ang II, TOAC3-Ang II, TOAC0-BK, TOAC3-BK) making use of fluorescence spectroscopy. Studies were performed in solution (effect of pH) and also of the interaction between the peptides and model membranes - micelles and bilayers - formed by amphiphiles, either zwitterionic or negatively charged. The intrinsic fluorescence of aromatic residues (Tyr4 in Ang II and Phe5 and Phe8 in BK) was monitored. Fluorescence quenching by the TOAC-carrying analogues provided information about the proximity between TOAC and the fluorophores. The fluorescence was pH-dependent and evinced regions corresponding to pKs of ionizable groups. Peptide-model membrane interactions were also examined. Stronger interactions were detected between the peptides and membranes formed by negatively charged amphiphiles, pointing to the importance of electrostatic interactions for binding. However, hydrophobic interactions were also involved, as suggested by the fact that the peptides also bound to zwitterionic membranes. Variable pH studies showed the effect of this parameter on peptide-membrane interaction. The peptide-membrane interactions promoted changes in the pKs of ionizable residues. Titrations with increasing membrane concentrations allowed calculation of binding constants. Binding to membranes is a function of peptide conformation. In particular, TOAC at position 3 seems to decrease the affinity of both Ang II and BK for membranes. Fluorescence quenching studies made use of three different approaches: 1) quenching by water soluble acrylamide, 2) quenching of the fluorescence of phospholipids carrying the fluorescent group NBD in different positions by the spin-labeled TOAC-bearing analogues, 3) quenching of the peptides fluorescence by methyl esters of stearic acid containing the nitroxide moiety at different positions in the acyl chain. These studies indicated that the peptides are located at the water-membrane interface. Measurements of fluorescence anisotropy also evinced binding of the peptides to the membranes and showed that the peptides undergo more restricted motion under these conditions. A peptide containing residues 92-100 (fEL1) of the Ang II AT1 human receptor was also studied. Predictions based on rhodopsin crystalline structure estimate that this sequence is located in the receptor´s first extra-cellular loop. Preliminary results suggest that fEL1 interacts with Ang II and TOAC1-Ang II, but not TOAC3-Ang II. This latter result is probably due to the TOAC-induced bend that restricts the freedom of motion of the peptide backbone. This feature is probably the cause of lack of biological activity of TOAC3-Ang II and TOAC3-BK, while the N-terminally labeled analogues retain partial activity (Nakaie et al., 2002). GPCR-binding peptides have been proposed to bind to the lipid bilayer and reach their receptors by diffusion in the bilayer. In aqueous solution these molecules exist as a dynamic equilibrium between various flexible conformations, among them, the receptor-bound conformation. The present study provides contributions for the understanding, at the molecular level, of the interaction between the peptide hormones and lipid membranes.

Membrane rafts (also referred as nanodomains) are membrane structures responsible for many cell processes. Their characterization is challenging because of the transparency, dynamics and small size of those structures. Moreover, high variability of cells makes their study even more complicated. In order to simplify the studies of membrane processes including the formation of those rafts often model membranes like Giant Unilamellar Vesicles (GUVs) and Supported Phospholipid Bilayers (SPBs) are used. In this Thesis new fluorescent tools for studying such membrane processed were developed, tested, or improved. Specifically, the phasor plot an approach applicable to the analysis of the fluorescence lifetime data, was theoretically and experimentally tested and afterwards applied to the characterization of the membrane nanodomains in GUVs. First, we introduced the phasor plots to the excitation state processes like solvent relaxation and Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) in lipid vesicles. We also employed the phasor plots in protein-ligand interaction, protein folding and denaturation studies. Finally, the phasor plot analysis of FRET data in combination with Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy (FCS) was used in characterization of membrane nanodomains in terms of the size, mobility and...

Ce travail concerne l’altération du comportement de phase de membranes lipidiques lors de leur interaction avec des molécules hydrophiles ou hydrophobes. L’utilisation de sondes moléculaires de fluorescence sensibles à leur micro-environnement constitue un aspect majeur de ce travail. Les techniques de spectroscopie de fluorescence et de microscopie confocale ont été mises à profit pour l’étude du comportement de ces sondes, donnant accès au degré de compacité et d’ordre dans les membranes.Nos résultats montrent que le polystyrène, un plastique rencontré de façon commune dans les régions polluées des océans, présente la capacité de modifier le comportement de phase des membranes lipidiques, entrant notamment en compétition avec le cholestérol.Nous avons montré que la présence élevée de sucres, tel que l’on peut le rencontrer dans certaines situations relevant de la bio-préservation, a pour effet de rompre la qualité de compaction des lipides, et nous avons proposé un nouveau modèle thermodynamique pour interpréter nos résultats.Enfin, les effets sur la membrane de l’incorporation d’un polymère amphiphile comportant un cholestérol greffé ont été étudiés, dans le cadre de l’élaboration de nouvelles stratégies thérapeutiques à base de lipides. / This work focuses on the alterations of lipid membrane phase behavior upon interaction with hydrophobic and hydophilic molecules. One major aspect of this thesis is the employement of environment sensitive probes to obtain information on the lipid bilayer packing by means of confocal spectral imaging and fluorescence spectroscopy. Our results show that polystyrene, a commonly found plastic in ocean wastes, has the ability to disrupt the lipid bilayer phase behavior and has a competitive interaction with cholesterol. The presence of high concentration of sugars, relevant in the field of biopreservation, has been found to alter the lipid bilayer packing and a new thermodynamics model has been proposed to complement the experimental results. Finally, the effects of an amphiphilic cholesterol-grafted polymer on model membrane was investigated, providing insight into potential new lipid therapeutic strategies.

Neste trabalho, estudamos a interação de um peptídeo antimicrobiano com membranas modelo, por meio de dicroísmo circular (CD), fluorescência e microscopia óptica. Tal peptídeo, chamado de híbrido, foi sintetizado como uma mistura das regiões mais ativas de dois outros peptídeos antimicrobianos, chamados de pediocina A e plantaricina 149. Esse peptídeo híbrido possui carga de +8, em pH fisiológico, e as membranas estudadas foram compostas por uma mistura de fosfolipídeos zwiteriônicos (cabeça polar de fosfatidilcolina, PC) e aniônicos (cabeça polar de fosfatidilglicerol, PG), em diferentes razões molares. Os resultados de CD evidenciaram que este peptídeo se apresenta de forma desordenada em solução aquosa, porém adota uma conformação helicoidal na presença de grandes vesículas unilamelares carregadas negativamente (LUVs). A quantidade de componente helicoidal é dependente da quantidade de lipídeo negativo presente na bicamada lipídica. A fluorescência do triptofano revelou um deslocamento para o azul muito significativo, chegando a 20 nm para membranas compostas por 100 mol% de PG. Os dois resultados (CD e fluorescência) indicam que a região dos aminoácidos que contém o triptofano deve estar interagindo muito fortemente com a região hidrofóbica da membrana, numa conformação tipo-helicoidal. Experimentos de vazamento de carboxifluoresceína encapsulada em LUVs, por espectroscopia de fluorescência, demonstraram a ação lítica do peptídeo induzindo a formação de poros nas membranas, independentemente da composição das LUVs. Entretanto, a razão molar peptídeo:lipídeo necessária para induzir vazamento da sonda foi menor para membranas lipídicas compostas por bicamadas contendo altas quantidades de PG. Tal fato coloca em evidência o papel fundamental da interação eletrostática entre os peptídeos carregados positivamente com as membranas carregadas negativamente para o processo de ligação e mecanismo de ação deste peptídeo. Para estudar mais detalhadamente o mecanismo de ação, realizamos experimentos de microscopia óptica em vesículas unilamelares gigantes. Concluímos que o peptídeo provoca total desestabilização das vesículas unilamelares gigantes, com formação de poros, seguidos de ruptura da bicamada lipídica e sua transformação em pequenos e mal definidos complexos de peptídeos e fosfolipídeos. / In this work, we investigated the interaction between an antibacterial peptide with model membranes, by means of circular dichroism (CD), fluorescence and optical microscopy. Such a peptide was synthesized from the most active regions of two others antimicrobial peptides, namely pediocin A and plantaricin 149. The hybrid peptide has a net charge of ~ +8, at physiological pH, and the studied model membranes were composed of a mixture of zwitterionic phospholipids (phosphatidylcholine polar head) and anionic phospholipids (phosphatidylglycerol polar head), at differente molar ratio. The CD results evidenced that the peptide was essentially structureless in aqueous solution, but acquired an helical conformation in the presence of charged large unillamellar vesicles LUVs. The helical content is dependent on the negative charge amount on membrane surface. The tryptophan fluorescence revealed a significant blue shift of the maximium emission wavelength, up to 20 nm for the membranes composed of 100 mol% of PG in respect to the peptide fluorescence in the aqueous solution. This indicates that part of the aminoacid residues, that contains the tryptophan, must be buried into the hydrophobic medium of the lipid membrane. Leakage experiments using fluorescence spectroscopy of carboxyfluorescein encapsulated in LUVs demonstrated the lytic action of the peptide, inducing the pore formation in the membrane, regardless of lipid membrane composition. However, it should be stressed that the peptide:lipid molar ratio necessary to induce probe leakage was smaller for lipid membranes made up of large PG amounts. Such evidence points out the key role of the electrostatic interaction between a positively charged peptide and the negatively charged membrane, mediated by hydrophobic contribution. To gain further insight into the lytic mechanism of the peptide, we performed single vesicle experiments using giant unilamellar vesicles under optical microscopy observations. We conclude that the peptide provokes a total membrane desestabilization, with pore formation, followed by a membrane disruption and its transformation into smaller and not well defined complexes of phospholipids and peptides.

<p>When drug molecules are passively absorbed through the cell membrane in the small intestine, the first key step is partitioning of the drug into the membrane. Partition data can therefore be used to predict drug absorption. The partitioning of a solute can be analyzed by drug partition chromatography on immobilized model membranes, where the chromatographic retention of the solute reflects the partitioning. The aims of this thesis were to develop the model membranes used in drug partition chromatography and to study the effects of different membrane components and membrane structures on drug partitioning, in order to characterize drug–membrane interactions.</p><p>Electrostatic effects were observed on the partitioning of charged drugs into liposomes containing charged detergent, lipid or phospholipid; bilayer disks; proteoliposomes and porcine intestinal brush border membrane vesicles (BBMVs), and on the retention of an oligonucleotide on positive liposomes. Biological membranes are naturally charged, which will affect drug partitioning in the human body.</p><p>Proteoliposomes containing transmembrane proteins and cholesterol, BBMVs and bilayer disks were used as novel model membranes in drug partition chromatography. Partition data obtained on proteoliposomes and BBMVs demonstrated how cholesterol and transmembrane proteins interact with drug molecules. Such interactions will occur between drugs and natural cell membranes. In the use of immobilized BBMVs for drug partition chromatography, yet unsolved problems with the stability of the membrane were encountered. A comparison of partition data obtained on bilayer disks with data on multi- and unilamellar liposomes indicated that the structure of the membrane affect the partitioning. The most accurate partition values might be obtained on bilayer disks.</p><p>Drug partition data obtained on immobilized model membranes include both hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions. Such partition data should preferably be used when deriving algorithms or computer programs for prediction of drug absorption.</p>

PEG-lipid stabilized bilayer disks have been found in lipid mixtures containing polyethylene glycol (PEG)-lipids where the combination of a high bending rigidity and low PEG-lipid/lipid miscibility favours disk formation. The disks are planar and circular in shape and their long-term stability is excellent. Theoretical calculations and experimental observations suggest that the micelle forming PEG-lipid are situated at the rim of the aggregate, protecting the hydrophobic lipid chains in the bulk of the aggregate from contact with water. This thesis deals with fundamental aspects concerning the lipid distribution in the disks, as well as with development, optimization, and initial evaluation of the disks as model membranes in partition and interaction studies. Small angle neutron scattering was used to study the partial segregation of components within the bilayer disk. The experiments verified that the PEG-lipids segregate and accumulate at the bilayer disk rim. The proof of component segregation is important from a fundamental point of view and useful, as exemplified in the below-mentioned study of melittin-lipid interaction, when interpreting partition or binding data obtained from studies based on bilayer disks. Today liposomes are often used as model membranes in partition and interaction studies. Using liposomes to predict, e.g., drug partitioning can however have certain drawbacks. In this thesis the disks were proven to be attractive alternatives to liposomes as model membranes in partition studies. The formation of bilayer disks by a technique based on detergent depletion enabled incorporation of a transmembrane protein in the bilayer disks and opened up for the use of disks as model membranes in membrane protein studies. Further, bilayer disks were used in a comparative study focused on the effect of aggregate curvature on the binding of the peptide melittin. Various techniques were used to perform initial evaluations of the bilayer disks as model membranes. Of these, capillary electrophoresis and biosensor-based technology had not been used before in combination with bilayer disks.

The epilepsies are a heterogenous group of symptom complexes, whose common features is the recurrence of seizures. There is no certain therapy for epilepsy. In order to promote new advances for the prevention of epilepsy the molecular mechanism of epileptic activities should be clarified. In the present study the goal is to obtain information for molecular mechanism of epilepsy. To achieve this, molecular alterations from pentylenetetrazol (PTZ)-induced epileptic activities on rat brain tissue and cell membranes were investigated by Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, Fourier Transform Infrared Microscopy and Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM). Moreover, the therapeutic role of an antiepileptic agent vigabatrin (VGB) on epileptic rat brain membranes were examined at molecular level. For better understanding of the action mechanism of PTZ and an antiepileptic drug VGB in cell membranes we firstly studied at model level using multilamellar liposomes (MLVs). We investigated PTZ-DPPC MLVs interactions in terms of lipid phase behavior, order and dynamics and nature of hydrogen bonding around its polar part, using Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), Electronspin Resonans Spectroscopy (ESR) and Steady State Fluorescence Spectroscopy. According to our data, PTZ has no ability to interact with membrane lipids. On the other hand, the results of VGB-DPPC interactions showed that VGB strongly interact with the head group and/or the region near the head of membrane phospholipids. The molecular investigation of PTZ-induced epileptic activities revealed that PTZ-induced seizures cause a decrease in the lipid and protein content, membrane fluidity and glycogen level. They stimulate alterations in membrane packing and the secondary structure of proteins as well as lipid peroxidation. In addition, our results show the transcription of early genes following high dose PTZ administration. All these molecular alterations variatins are only resulted from the consequences of epileptic activities not from convulsant agent PTZ itself. The important finding is that, VGB restored some of the alterations by PTZ-induced epileptic activities on brain cell membrane. For instance, it restored membrane fluidity, lipid peroxidation, phospholipid degradation and changes in membrane organization. However, it was found that VGB has no significant effects on the changes in protein secondary structure.

The aim of this thesis was the investigation of the mitochondrial response mechanisms upon apoptotic stimuli. The specific objectives were the biophysical characterization of membrane dynamics and the specific roles of lipids in the context of apoptotic regulation occurring at the mitochondrion and its complex membrane systems. The BH4 domain is an anti-apoptotic specific domain of the Bcl-2 protein. Solid phase peptide synthesis was used to produce large amount of the peptide for biophysical studies. A protocol has been established and optimized, guarantying the required purity for biophysical studies. In detail the purification by high performance liquid chromatography and the characterisation via mass spectroscopy are described. The secondary structure of BH4 changes significantly in the presence of lipid vesicles as observed by infrared spectroscopy and circular dichroism. The BH4 peptide aggregates at the membrane surface and inserts slightly into the hydrophobic part of the membrane. Using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and calorimetry techniques, it could even be shown that the BH4 domain modifies the dynamic and organization of the liposomes which mimic a mitochondrial surface. The second study was on the first helix of the pro-apoptotic protein Bax. This sequence called Bax-α1 has the function to address the cytosolic Bax protein to the mitochondrial membrane upon activation. Once again a protocol has been established for the synthesis and purification of this peptide. The aim was to elucidate the key role of cardiolipin, a mitochondria-specific phospholipid, in the interaction of Bax-α1 with the mitochondrial membrane system. The NMR and circular dichroism studies showed that Bax-α1 interacts with the membrane models only if they contain the cardiolipin, producing a strong electrostatic lock effect which is located at the membrane surface. Finally, a new NMR approach was developed which allows the investigation of the lipid response of isolated active mitochondria upon the presence of apoptotic stimuli. The goal was there to directly monitor lipid specific the occurring changes during these physiological activities.

When drug molecules are passively absorbed through the cell membrane in the small intestine, the first key step is partitioning of the drug into the membrane. Partition data can therefore be used to predict drug absorption. The partitioning of a solute can be analyzed by drug partition chromatography on immobilized model membranes, where the chromatographic retention of the solute reflects the partitioning. The aims of this thesis were to develop the model membranes used in drug partition chromatography and to study the effects of different membrane components and membrane structures on drug partitioning, in order to characterize drug–membrane interactions. Electrostatic effects were observed on the partitioning of charged drugs into liposomes containing charged detergent, lipid or phospholipid; bilayer disks; proteoliposomes and porcine intestinal brush border membrane vesicles (BBMVs), and on the retention of an oligonucleotide on positive liposomes. Biological membranes are naturally charged, which will affect drug partitioning in the human body. Proteoliposomes containing transmembrane proteins and cholesterol, BBMVs and bilayer disks were used as novel model membranes in drug partition chromatography. Partition data obtained on proteoliposomes and BBMVs demonstrated how cholesterol and transmembrane proteins interact with drug molecules. Such interactions will occur between drugs and natural cell membranes. In the use of immobilized BBMVs for drug partition chromatography, yet unsolved problems with the stability of the membrane were encountered. A comparison of partition data obtained on bilayer disks with data on multi- and unilamellar liposomes indicated that the structure of the membrane affect the partitioning. The most accurate partition values might be obtained on bilayer disks. Drug partition data obtained on immobilized model membranes include both hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions. Such partition data should preferably be used when deriving algorithms or computer programs for prediction of drug absorption.