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A presente tese demonstra, a partir da avaliação convencional pelo método das Funções de Transferência de sistemas de imagem radiológica, que é necessário obter imagens de fenda em diversas orientações no campo para que essa análise tenha um significado mais real no caso de sistemas não isotrópicos. Isso provém da não linearidade na variação entre as FTMs obtidas para diversas direções 0 e 90&#176C relativas ao eixo do tubo de raios-X. Essa verificação, entretanto, representa um sério problema prático, pois indica um aumento no grau de complexidade de um método que, embora considerado o mais preciso pela maioria dos pesquisadores, tem sido utilizado apenas por laboratórios muito bem equipados. Assim, visando solucionar esse problema, esta tese propõe um novo método de simulação por computador que calcula a FEL e a FTM devidas ao ponto focal, dispensando, portanto, todo o complexo aparato experimental convencionalmente utilizado, o que contribui para tornar acessível à avaliação pelas funções de transferência a qualquer unidade radiológica. Por fim, faz parte desse trabalho também uma investigação do significado físico das variações registradas entre as FTMs e um estudo formal desenvolvido acerca dos conceitos da característica de campo e da magnificação lateral. / From the conventional evaluation by the radiological systems Transfer Functions, this work shows that it is necessary to obtain slit images at several field orientations so that this annalysis has a more real significance for non-isotropic systems. This is achieved from the non-linearity on the variations among the MTFs obtained in several directions between 0 and 90&#176C relative to the X-ray tube axis. This notification, however, represents a serious practical matter, because it shows an increase on the complexity of a method which has been used just by well structured laboratories, although many researchers have considered it the most accurate. Hence, in order to solve this problem, we present a new computer simulation method which calculates the LSF and the MTF due to the focal spot, without all the conventional complex experimental apparatus. This makes the evaluation by the transfer functions suitable to any radiological unit. Finally, it is also part of this work an investigation of the physical meaning of the variations among the MTFs and a formal study about the field characteristics and the lateral magnification concepts.

Este trabalho tem como objetivo o desenvolvimento de um conjunto de procedimentos de avaliação da qualidade de equipamentos mamográficos a partir do processamento de imagens digitais obtidas com a exposição radiográfica de objetos de testes (phantoms) padronizados. O sistema desenvolvido permite a avaliação de diversos parâmetros físicos de qualidade da imagem radiográfica com simplicidade e rapidez, sem abrir mão da precisão, com o mínimo tempo e uso dos equipamentos. Os principais parâmetros avaliados relacionados à qualidade de um sistema de imagem são: a resolução espacial - pela medida da função de transferência de modulação (MTF) - o contraste - medido pela curva sensitométrica e o ruído - pela medida da densidade espectral de ruído (NPS). Dessa forma, o sistema desenvolvido atende às recomendações do ICRU (International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements), que trata das diretrizes para controle de qualidade de imagens radiográficas em todo o mundo. A partir da medida desses três parâmetros de qualidade é possível também aferir a eficiência de detecção quântica (DQE) do sistema de imagem mamográfica, que permite uma avaliação completa da qualidade da imagem em função da dose recebida pelo paciente. Os resultados obtidos comprovam a possibilidade da aplicação prática do sistema desenvolvido, o qual proporciona uma avaliação completa da qualidade da imagem formada pelo equipamento. Todos os resultados apresentaram baixa estimativa de erro, fundamentados pela análise da incerteza nos processos de medida. Além disso, a avaliação por meio do DQE permitiu realizar uma comparação entre os sistemas mamográficos envolvidos nessa pesquisa. Assim, com base nesses resultados é possível afirmar que o sistema computacional desenvolvido pode desempenhar um papel fundamental na avaliação da qualidade em sistemas de imagens mamográficas. / The aim of this work is to develop a set of procedures for quality assurance of mammographic equipment by the digital image processing of radiographic images of standard test objects (phantoms) acquired by the radiographic equipment. It allows the evaluation of several physical parameters of the radiographic image quality by a simple and quick procedure, with good accuracy, using the equipment the shortest time as possible. The main evaluated parameters related to the quality of an imaging system are: spatial resolution - by measuring the modulation transfer function (MTF) - image contrast - by the measurement of the H&D curve and noise - evaluated by the noise power spectrum (NPS). Thus, it attends the recommendations of the ICRU (International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements), which deals as the guidelines for quality assurance of radiographic images all over the world. Through these quality parameters is possible to measure the detective quantum efficiency (DQE) of any mammographic system, which allows a full evaluation of the image quality related to the dose absorbed by the patient. The results confirm the possibility of the practical application of the developed system, which provides a full evaluation of the image quality, acquired by the mammographic equipment. All results showed low error estimation, substantiated by the analysis of the uncertainty in measurements procedures. Moreover, the evaluation through the DQE allowed to perform a comparison of mammography systems involved in this research. Thus, based on these results, it is possible to confirm that its system can perform a fundamental part of the quality assurance in mammographic images system.

Este trabalho tem como objetivo o desenvolvimento de um conjunto de procedimentos de avaliação da qualidade de equipamentos mamográficos a partir do processamento de imagens digitais obtidas com a exposição radiográfica de objetos de testes (phantoms) padronizados. O sistema desenvolvido permite a avaliação de diversos parâmetros físicos de qualidade da imagem radiográfica com simplicidade e rapidez, sem abrir mão da precisão, com o mínimo tempo e uso dos equipamentos. Os principais parâmetros avaliados relacionados à qualidade de um sistema de imagem são: a resolução espacial - pela medida da função de transferência de modulação (MTF) - o contraste - medido pela curva sensitométrica e o ruído - pela medida da densidade espectral de ruído (NPS). Dessa forma, o sistema desenvolvido atende às recomendações do ICRU (International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements), que trata das diretrizes para controle de qualidade de imagens radiográficas em todo o mundo. A partir da medida desses três parâmetros de qualidade é possível também aferir a eficiência de detecção quântica (DQE) do sistema de imagem mamográfica, que permite uma avaliação completa da qualidade da imagem em função da dose recebida pelo paciente. Os resultados obtidos comprovam a possibilidade da aplicação prática do sistema desenvolvido, o qual proporciona uma avaliação completa da qualidade da imagem formada pelo equipamento. Todos os resultados apresentaram baixa estimativa de erro, fundamentados pela análise da incerteza nos processos de medida. Além disso, a avaliação por meio do DQE permitiu realizar uma comparação entre os sistemas mamográficos envolvidos nessa pesquisa. Assim, com base nesses resultados é possível afirmar que o sistema computacional desenvolvido pode desempenhar um papel fundamental na avaliação da qualidade em sistemas de imagens mamográficas. / The aim of this work is to develop a set of procedures for quality assurance of mammographic equipment by the digital image processing of radiographic images of standard test objects (phantoms) acquired by the radiographic equipment. It allows the evaluation of several physical parameters of the radiographic image quality by a simple and quick procedure, with good accuracy, using the equipment the shortest time as possible. The main evaluated parameters related to the quality of an imaging system are: spatial resolution - by measuring the modulation transfer function (MTF) - image contrast - by the measurement of the H&D curve and noise - evaluated by the noise power spectrum (NPS). Thus, it attends the recommendations of the ICRU (International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements), which deals as the guidelines for quality assurance of radiographic images all over the world. Through these quality parameters is possible to measure the detective quantum efficiency (DQE) of any mammographic system, which allows a full evaluation of the image quality related to the dose absorbed by the patient. The results confirm the possibility of the practical application of the developed system, which provides a full evaluation of the image quality, acquired by the mammographic equipment. All results showed low error estimation, substantiated by the analysis of the uncertainty in measurements procedures. Moreover, the evaluation through the DQE allowed to perform a comparison of mammography systems involved in this research. Thus, based on these results, it is possible to confirm that its system can perform a fundamental part of the quality assurance in mammographic images system.

The aim of our work was to provide a robust method for evaluating imaging performance of positron emission tomography (PET) systems and particularly to estimate the modulation transfer function (MTF) using the line spread function (LSF) method. A novel plane source was prepared using thin layer chromatography (TLC) of a fluorine-18-fluorodeoxyglucose (18F-FDG) solution. The source was placed within a phantom, and imaged using the whole body (WB) two dimensional (2D) and three dimensional (3D) standard imaging protocols in a hybrid PET/CT scanner. Modulation transfer function was evaluated by determining the LSF, for various reconstruction methods and filters. The proposed MTF measurement method was validated against the conventional method, based on point spread function (PSF). Higher MTF values were obtained with 3D scanning protocol and 3D iterative reconstruction algorithm. All MTF obtained using 3D reconstruction algorithms showed better preservation of higher frequencies than the 2D algorithms. They also exhibited better contrast and resolution. MTF derived from LSF were more precise compared with those obtained from PSF since their reproducibility was better in all cases, providing a mean standard deviation of 0.0043, in contrary to the PSF method which gave 0.0405. By using our novel plane source we developed a method for measuring the image registration shift between the CT and the PET images in fusion. The method gave results that are comparable to the manufacturers’ method for image registration and has the advance that is applicable to all scanner models. Through the MTF it is also feasible to compare commercially available scanners in terms of image quality. In conclusion, the proposed method is novel and easy to implement for characterization of the signal transfer properties and image quality of PET/CT systems. It provides an easy way to evaluate the frequency response of each kernel available. The proposed method requires cheap and easily accessible materials, available to the medical physicist in the nuclear medicine department. Furthermore, it is robust to aliasing and since this method is based on the LSF, is more resilient to noise due to greater data averaging than conventional PSF-integration techniques. In this study was used to assess the image quality. But it can also be used as a method of quality control and stability of system performance over time. / Σκοπός της παρούσας μελέτης ήταν να εισαγάγει μια νέα μέθοδο για την αξιολόγηση των χαρακτηριστικών της ποιότητας εικόνας στην τομογραφία εκπομπής ποζιτρονίων (PET). Ειδικότερα, έγινε εκτίμηση της συνάρτησης διαμόρφωσης μεταφοράς (MTF) σε PET εικόνες με χρήση της συνάρτησης διασποράς γραμμής (LSF). Κατασκευάστηκε μία πρότυπη επίπεδη πηγή, Λεπτού Χρωματογραφικού Χάρτη (TLC), υψηλής ομοιογένειας. Οι καμπύλες της MTF υπολογίστηκαν από την ανακατασκευή των εγκάρσιων τομών της επίπεδης πηγής. Η ανακατασκευή έγινε για όλους τους διαθέσιμους αλγόριθμους ανακατασκευής και φίλτρα καθώς και για τους δύο τρόπους σάρωσης (2D και 3D). Τα αποτελέσματα συγκρίθηκαν με την MTF που προκύπτει μέσω της συνάρτησης διασποράς σημείου (PSF). Με την χρήση της επίπεδης πηγής αναπτύχθηκε μέθοδος με την οποία μπορεί να ελεγχθεί η σύμπτωση της εικόνας του CT και της εικόνας του PET κατά την σύντηξη. Η μέθοδος συγκρίθηκε με τον τρόπο ελέγχου που καθορίζει ο κατασκευαστής του συστήματος. Επιπλέον, πραγματοποιήθηκε σύγκριση μεταξύ δύο εμπορικών συστημάτων από διαφορετικούς κατασκευαστές. Η σύγκριση πραγματοποιήθηκε για τα διαθέσιμα πρωτόκολλα σάρωσης και τους προτεινόμενους αλγόριθμους ανακατασκευής κάθε συστήματος. Η σάρωση του αντικειμένου σε 3D και η χρήση τρισδιάστατων αλγορίθμων ανασύστασης είχε ως αποτέλεσμα την δημιουργία εικόνων με υψηλότερες τιμές MTF. Όλες οι καμπύλες MTF που προέκυψαν από τρισδιάστατους αλγόριθμούς ανασύστασης έδειξαν καλύτερη απόκριση στις υψηλότερες συχνότητες από τους δισδιάστατους αλγόριθμους. Οι εικόνες που προέρχονται από τρισδιάστατους αλγόριθμους έχουν καλύτερη αντίθεση (contrast) και διακριτική ικανότητα (resolution). Οι καμπύλες MTF που προέρχονται από την LSF έχουν καλύτερη ακρίβεια σε σχέση με τις καμπύλες MTF που προέρχονται από την PSF και η επαναληψιμότητα τους ήταν καλύτερη σε όλες τις περιπτώσεις. Η μέση τιμή της τυπικής απόκλισης των καμπυλών MTF που προέρχονται από την LSF βρέθηκε ίση με 0,0043, ενώ η μέση τιμή της τυπικής απόκλισης των καμπυλών MTF που προέρχονται από την χρήση της PSF ήταν 0,0405. Με την προτεινόμενη μέθοδο αξιολόγησης είναι δυνατόν να συγκριθούν δύο ή περισσότερα εμπορικά διαθέσιμα συστήματα ως προς τα ποιοτικά χαρακτηριστικά της εικόνας τους. Τέλος, η μέτρηση της απόκλιση της εικόνας του CT και του PET στην εικόνα σύντηξης με την μέθοδο που αναπτύχθηκε ήταν συγκρίσιμη με την τιμή που μετρήθηκε εφαρμόζοντας την μέθοδο του κατασκευαστή. Συμπερασματικά, η παρούσα εργασία έδειξε ότι η χρήση της MTF, που προέρχεται από την LSF, μπορεί να χαρακτηρίσει πλήρως την ποιότητα εικόνας PET. Με τη προτεινόμενη μέθοδο αξιολόγησης της ποιότητας εικόνας, η διερεύνηση των διαφόρων στοιχείων της αλυσίδας απεικόνισης μπορεί να γίνει πιο απλή και να βελτιωθεί περαιτέρω και η συνολική απόδοση συστημάτων PET. Η προτεινόμενη μέθοδος αξιολόγησης απαιτεί υλικά που είναι συνηθισμένα στο κλινικό περιβάλλον, μπορεί να εφαρμοστεί πειραματικά και να χρησιμοποιηθεί στην κλινική πράξη. Επιπλέον, επειδή η μέθοδος βασίζεται στην LSF, είναι πιο ανθεκτική στο θόρυβο από τις συμβατικές τεχνικές που κάνουν χρήση της συνάρτησης διασποράς σημείου. Σε αυτή τη μελέτη χρησιμοποιήθηκε για την εκτίμηση της ποιότητας εικόνας. Μπορεί όμως να χρησιμοποιηθεί και ως μέθοδος ελέγχου ποιότητας και σταθερότητας της απόδοσης του συστήματος στον χρόνο.

A presente tese demonstra, a partir da avaliação convencional pelo método das Funções de Transferência de sistemas de imagem radiológica, que é necessário obter imagens de fenda em diversas orientações no campo para que essa análise tenha um significado mais real no caso de sistemas não isotrópicos. Isso provém da não linearidade na variação entre as FTMs obtidas para diversas direções 0 e 90&#176C relativas ao eixo do tubo de raios-X. Essa verificação, entretanto, representa um sério problema prático, pois indica um aumento no grau de complexidade de um método que, embora considerado o mais preciso pela maioria dos pesquisadores, tem sido utilizado apenas por laboratórios muito bem equipados. Assim, visando solucionar esse problema, esta tese propõe um novo método de simulação por computador que calcula a FEL e a FTM devidas ao ponto focal, dispensando, portanto, todo o complexo aparato experimental convencionalmente utilizado, o que contribui para tornar acessível à avaliação pelas funções de transferência a qualquer unidade radiológica. Por fim, faz parte desse trabalho também uma investigação do significado físico das variações registradas entre as FTMs e um estudo formal desenvolvido acerca dos conceitos da característica de campo e da magnificação lateral. / From the conventional evaluation by the radiological systems Transfer Functions, this work shows that it is necessary to obtain slit images at several field orientations so that this annalysis has a more real significance for non-isotropic systems. This is achieved from the non-linearity on the variations among the MTFs obtained in several directions between 0 and 90&#176C relative to the X-ray tube axis. This notification, however, represents a serious practical matter, because it shows an increase on the complexity of a method which has been used just by well structured laboratories, although many researchers have considered it the most accurate. Hence, in order to solve this problem, we present a new computer simulation method which calculates the LSF and the MTF due to the focal spot, without all the conventional complex experimental apparatus. This makes the evaluation by the transfer functions suitable to any radiological unit. Finally, it is also part of this work an investigation of the physical meaning of the variations among the MTFs and a formal study about the field characteristics and the lateral magnification concepts.

Actuellement, la presbytie peut être corrigée chirurgicalement à l’aide d’implants intraoculaires réfractifs ou diffractifs multifocaux (chirurgie endoculaire invasive et irréversible) ou en intracornéen avec une correction multifocale réfractive (correction laser irréversible, ou insertion d’un implant dans le stroma). L’objectif de ce travail est de développer un nouvel implant permettant de corriger la presbytie, qui allie l’innocuité et la réversibilité d’une correction intracornéenne, à l’efficacité du diffractif. Le design des profils optiques bifocaux a été permis grâce au développement d’outils de simulation optique. Les efficacités de diffraction sont calculées à partir de la propagation du champ électrique par spectre angulaire. La qualité optique est déterminée d’après les simulations de Fonction de Transfert de Modulation obtenues sous Zemax. Des simulations de rendu d’images permettent de visualiser les effets de différents profils envisagés. Les paramètres critiques du design optique sont déterminés. Le choix du matériau dépend des contraintes de biocompatibilité de l’implant et des techniques de fabrication. La solution retenue est un hydrogel à forte teneur en eau, couplé à une nouvelle architecture de l’implant. L’hydrogel est obtenu par polymérisation radicalaire de macromonomères difonctionnels de poly(éthylène glycol) de masses molaires de l’ordre de 8000 g.mol‐1 qui conduisent à des propriétés mécaniques et une perméabilité aux nutriments compatibles avec l’application. La réalisation, la stérilisation et la caractérisation optique de prototypes ont abouti à la preuve du concept d’un implant bifocal diffractif intracornéen / Presbyopia can be corrected with surgery by means of refractive or diffractive multifocal intraocular lenses (which imply an irreversible and invasive endocular surgery) or by intracorneal multifocal refractive correction (irreversible laser correction, or insertion of an intrastromal implant). This work aims at developing a new implant to correct presbyopia, which takes advantage of both the harmlessness and the reversibility of an intracorneal correction, and the efficiency of diffractive optics. The design of the bifocal optical profiles was based on the development of optical simulation tools. The diffractive efficiencies are calculated from the distribution of the electric field with the method of angular spectrum. The optical quality is determined according to the simulations of Modulation Transfer Function obtained with Zemax. Images simulations show the effects of the different profiles studied. The critical parameters of the optical design are also determined. The choice of the material depends on several constraints such as biocompatibility and techniques of manufacturing. The adopted solution relies on the used of an hydrogel with high water content and the design of a new implant architecture. The hydrogel is obtained by radical polymerization of difunctional macromonomers of poly(ethylene glycol) with molar masses around 8000 g.mol‐1, allowing mechanical properties and permeability to nutriments compatible with the application. The realization, the sterilization and the characterization of prototypes showed the proof of the concept of a diffractive bifocal intracorneal implant

Multimódová vlákna jsou zobrazovacím prostředkem s významným potenciálem v in-vivo mikroendoskopii. V poslední době tato metoda zaznamenala velký rozvoj, a to díky zdokonalování výpočetní a jiné techniky, například prostorové modulace světla. Cílem této práce bylo nalézt specifické limity zobrazování multimódovými vlákny a představit jejich počítačovou simulaci. Byl zkoumán vliv způsobu osvětlení optického systému obsahujícího multimódové vlákno na jeho schopnost fokusace a zobrazování. Analýzou dat získaných ze simulací a experimentu bylo zjištěno, že různá míra omezení Gaussovského svazku a plnění apertury multimódového vlákna má za následek významnou změnu zobrazovacích schopností systému. Při pozorování kvality fokusace bylo zjištěno, že nejlépe se projevují svazky málo omezené aperturou vlákna. Tento fakt byl potvrzen i experimentálním měřením. Zobrazování za použití svazků s podobnými hodnotami omezení (50%) projevovalo i nejlepší schopnost přenosu kontrastu. Avšak při analýze rozlišení dvou bodových objektů se jako nejvhodnější projevily svazky významně přeplňující numerickou aperturu vlákna, 100% a více. Přítomnost tohoto rozdílu poukazuje na skutečnost, že multimódové vlákno není zcela náhodné médium, ale propagace světla skrz multimódové vlákno projevuje znaky závislosti na vnějších zobrazovacích podmínkách, jako je například změna omezení osvětlovacího svazku. V této práci bylo představeno několik způsobů vyhodnocení kvality zobrazování pomocí multimódového vlákna. Každé z těchto kritérií podalo dílčí charakteristiku chování optického systému obsahujícího multimódové optické vlákno. Jednotlivé výsledky se neshodují na jednom konkrétním řešení a nutí osobu využívající zobrazovací systém obsahující multimódové vlákno ke zvážení několika aspektů, a to v jakém prostředí bude daný optický systém využívat a který parametr kvality zobrazení bude považovat za nejdůležitější.

Dissertation thesis is focused on real digital signal processing by quadrature mirror digital filter banks. In the first part a dual channel quadrature mirror digital filter bank is described briefly. Mainly transfer functions for distorted subband signals are described. In the next part generalized sigma-delta modulator and its linear model are described. Subsequently the generalized sigma-delta modulator is used in decomposition part of quadrature mirror digital filter bank. Designed structure is analyzed. Two design method of transfer functions are designed for the structure on the basis of analysis results. The first method is suitable for hand-made design by intuitive distribution of zeros and poles. The second method is more suitable for computer design. It is iterative method based on correlation. Transfer functions for quadrature mirror digital filter bank with sigma-delta modulators design examples are also part of thesis. Application of designed structure of quadrature mirror digital filter bank can lead to bigger compression ration in lossy data compression.

O ganho crescen te de desempenho nos computadores modernos tem impulsionado os trabalhos científicos nas áreas de simulação computacional. Muitos autores utilizam em suas pesquisas ferramentas comerciais que limitam seus trabalhos ao esconder os algoritmos internos destas ferramentas e dificultam a adição de dados in-vivo nestes trabalhos. Este trabalho explora esta lacuna deixada por aqueles autores. Elaboramos um arcabouço computacional capaz de reproduzir os fenômenos óticos e fisiológicos do sistema visual. Construímos com superfícies quádricas os modelos esquemáticos do olho humano e propomos um algoritmo de traçado de raio realístico. Então realizamos um estudo nos modelos esquemáticos e a partir deles mais a adição de dados in-vivo obtidos de um topógrafo de córnea extraímos informações óticas destes modelos. Calculamos os coeficientes e Zernike dos modelos para tamanhos diversos de pupila e obtivemos medidas de aberração do olho humano. Os resultados encontrados estão de acordo com os trabalhos relacionados e as simulações com dados in-vivo estão consoantes com as produzidas por um aparelho de frente de onda comerciais. Este trabalho é um esforço em aproveitar as informações adquiridas pelos equipamentos modernos de oftalmologia, além de auxiliar o entendimento de sistemas visuais biológicos acabam também em auxiliar a elaboração de sistemas de visão artificial e os projetistas de sistemas óticos / The increase in performance of the modern computers has driven scientific work in the areas of computer simulation. Many authors use in their research commercial tools that use embedding algorithms, which sources are not provided, and it makes harder and sometimes impossible, the development of novel theories or experiments. This work explores this gap left for those authors. We present a computational framework capable to reproduce the optical and physiological phenomena of the human visual system. We construct schematical models of the human eye from quadrics surfaces and consider an algorithm of realistic ray tracing. Afterward, we performed a study on schematics models and in addition we introduce, in these models, in-vivo data obtained from corneal topography machine and extract optical information. We calculate the Zernike coefficients in the models for different sizes of pupil and measures of aberration of the human eye. The results are in agreement with related work and simulations with in-vivo data are according with the produced by a commercial wave-front device. This work is an effort in using to advantage the information acquired for the modern equipment of ophthalmology, besides assisting the understanding of biological visual systems, it also helps the development of artificial vision systems and the designing of optical systems