京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(工学) / 甲第19738号 / 工博第4193号 / 新制||工||1647(附属図書館) / 32774 / 京都大学大学院工学研究科物質エネルギー化学専攻 / (主査)教授 近藤 輝幸, 教授 辻 康之, 教授 大江 浩一 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Philosophy (Engineering) / Kyoto University / DGAM

Urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA) protein is a serine protease of the trypsin family that is overexpressed by tumors cells seeking to metastasize. Molecular imaging methods using molecular imaging probe designed to target uPA could provide a method for the detection of aggressive cancers and monitoring response to treatment. Four classes of high affinity uPA inhibitors, three which were reversible and one irreversible, were used as platforms to develop radiolabeled probes for uPA. Based on structure-activity relationships, lead compounds were modified to allow for the introduction of a radiohalogen (radioiodine) at different sites in the corresponding molecules. Suitable synthetic strategies were developed to create libraries of iodinated phenyl guanidine, peptide, naphtamidine and phosphonate derivatives. For the phenylguanidines colorimetric assays showed the product had micromolar affinity while for the peptide derivatives low nanomolar affinity for the iodinated analogue was observed (1.4 nM to 2.53 nM). Unfortunately quantitative biodistribution studies showed low tumour uptake (<0.5% ID/g). More promising results were obtained for the irreversible iodinated phosphonated derivative which had an affinity of 2.1 nM. This reagent showed 1.95% ID/g tumour uptake and lower blood uptake in vivo which demonstrates advantageous properties over existing uPA probes in terms of tumour-to-blood ratios. A complementary development was also achieved in that the first example of a 125I-labelled tetrazine was prepared. This new reagent can be used in pre-targeted strategies that utilize bioorthogonal coupling between stained trans-cyclooctene (TCO) and tetrazines. The product was prepared using a concomitant oxidation iodo-destannylation reaction and the product isolated in 80% radiochemical yield. The reaction with transcycloctene proceeded rapidly to produce various isomers which were fully characterized through NMR analysis of the non-radioactive analogues. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

Recently discovered methods for both diagnosis and treatment management of heart failure (HF) and other cardiovascular diseases include the use of molecular imaging modalities such as positron emission tomography (PET). As such, PET radiotracers have been developed and show strong evidence for quantifiable sympathetic nervous system (SNS) imaging in animals and humans using radioligands that target the norepinephrine transporter (NET). In this study, the cardiac sympathetic nervous system imaging probe [¹⁸F]meta-fluorobenzylguanidine ([¹⁸F]mFBG) was evaluated in Sprague Dawley (SD) rats and hypothesized to i) have measurable NET-dependent uptake kinetics; ii) possess measurable NET reuptake, iii) be stored into vesicles, and remain metabolically stable within the myocardium, iv) be sensitive to changes in sympathetic tone, and v) discriminate between healthy and diseased animals. Using the selective NET inhibitor desipramine (DMI) and nonselective extraneural and neural uptake inhibitor phenoxybenzamine (PBZ) we observed 30-35% and ~70% reduced uptake in the myocardium, respectively. Neuronal ablation with 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) resulted in a 36% loss of myocardial retention. DMI and PBZ chase dosing revealed no change in myocardial washout by PET, suggesting minimal reuptake of the tracer and preferential clearance into blood. Pretreatment with the vesicular monoamine transporter (VMAT) inhibitor reserpine (RSP) reduced myocardial retention by 34% within 5 minutes in comparison to baseline, providing evidence for intraneural vesicular retention. Dahl salt-sensitive (DSS) rats were induced with HF via high salt (HS, 8%) diet. After 16 weeks, rats kept on HS diet showed ~32% reduced myocardial uptake in comparison to low salt (LS) controls. Non-invasive PET imaging of HF is therefore sensitive to the expected changes in myocardial uptake in small animal imaging. The myocardial cholinergic system was evaluated using the vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT) ligand [¹⁸F]fluoroethoxybenzylvesamicol ([¹⁸F]FEOBV) in CD-1 mice. We hypothesized that i) [¹⁸F]FEOBV uptake in the myocardium is VAChT dependent; and more specific in the absence of isoflurane anesthesia. Baseline uptake was observed in the ventricles. However, pretreatment with vesamicol in the presence and absence of isoflurane did not reduce myocardial activity. Analysis of PET images in mice with differential cardiac VAChT expression showed minimal changes in blood and cardiac activity. These studies have demonstrated a lack of specific binding of [¹⁸F]FEOBV in the myocardium of mice, rendering this imaging probe unfit in interpreting cholinergic function in small animals. The second half of the thesis is focused on the development of a radiolabeling technique using novel iminophosphorane precursors, and their subsequent reactivity and application using the naturally abundant (99% carbon-12) and positron emission tomography (PET) imaging isotope (carbon-11). We hypothesized that the reaction of iminophosphorane precursors with [¹¹C]CO₂ with allow us to i) synthesize a myriad of labelled isocyanate derived functional groups ii) apply this chemistry to label relevant radiopharmaceuticals in high yield and molar activity. Optimization of reaction conditions was performed, and a substrate scope was developed. Using the naturally abundant carbon isotope, we synthesized isocyanate derived functional groups such as carbamates, thiocarbamates, ureas, and amides in 63-94% yield. Pharmaceuticals such as regorafenib, URB694, and melatonin were synthesized in 60-72% yield. When applied to carbon-11 radiochemistry, labelled products were produced in 32-84% radiochemical yield (RCY). Radiopharmaceuticals such as [¹¹C]URB694 and [¹¹C]glibenclamide were synthesized in high yield and molar activity suitable for preclinical evaluation. We have demonstrated the utility of iminophosphorane precursors in synthesizing labelled functional groups and relevant radiopharmaceuticals in high yields, enabling their use for future preclinical or clinical studies. The recent development of the potent and selective nod-like receptor protein-3 (NLRP3) inhibitor MCC950 has demonstrated remarkable application as a therapeutic in reducing macrophage infiltration and aortic lesion area, but has yet to be applied to PET imaging due to poor synthesis yields. We hypothesized that i) using our previously established iminophosphorane chemistry we can synthesize [¹¹C]MCC950, and ii) selective uptake of [¹¹C]MCC950 occurs in aortic atherosclerotic lesions. We successfully radiolabeled [¹¹C]MCC950 in 45 ± 4 % RCY (27 ± 2 GBq/µmol). Plasma metabolite analysis revealed 94% intact tracer after 15 minutes, and ex vivo autoradiography on excised aortas showed heterogeneous uptake in atherosclerotic plaques of ApoE⁻ᐟ⁻ mice. Pretreatment with nonradioactive MCC950 resulted in significantly increased uptake in aortic lesions (48 ± 17 %ID/m² vs 104 ± 15 %ID/m²), without significantly increasing plasma free fraction (1.3 ± 0.4% vs 1.7 ± 0.8%). The data suggests increased specific binding following blockade which may be due to biochemical mechanisms such as disaggregation of NLRP3 oligomers, artificially increasing the available number of binding sites. Thus, the data suggest [¹¹C]MCC950 uptake demonstrates specific binding and may therefore prove useful as an in vivo imaging probe to detect NLRP3-mediated inflammation in atherosclerosis.

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Molecular probes capable of detecting colorectal cancer (CRC) are needed for early CRC diagnosis. The objective of this study was to characterize c[CTPSPFSHC]OH (TCP-1), a small peptide derived from phage display selection, for targeting human CRC xenografts using technetium-99m ((99m)Tc)-labeled TCP-1 and fluorescent cyanine-7 (Cy7)-labeled form of the peptide (Cy7-TCP-1). (99m)Tc-TCP-1 was generated by modifying TCP-1 with succinimidyl-6-hydrazino-nicotinamide (S-HYNIC) followed by radiolabeling. In vitro saturation binding experiments were performed for (99m)Tc-TCP-1 in human HCT116 colon cancer cells. SCID mice with human HCT116 cancer xenografts were imaged with (99m)Tc-TCP-1 or control peptide using a small-animal SPECT imager: Group I (n=5) received no blockade; Group II (n=5) received a blocking dose of non-radiolabeled TCP-1. Group III (n=5) were imaged with (99m)Tc-labeled control peptide (inactive peptide). SCID mice with human PC3 prostate cancer xenografts (Group IV, n=5) were also imaged with (99m)Tc-TCP-1. Eight additional SCID mice bearing HCT116 xenografts in dorsal skinfold window chambers (DSWC) were imaged by direct positron imaging of (18)F-fluorodeoxyglucose ((18)F-FDG) and fluorescence microscopy of Cy7-TCP-1. In vitro(99m)Tc-HYNIC-TCP-1 binding assays on HCT 116 cells indicated a mean Kd of 3.04±0.52nM. In cancer xenografts, (99m)Tc-TCP-1 radioactivity (%ID/g) was 1.01±0.15 in the absence of blockade and was reduced to 0.26±0.04 (P<0.01) with blockade. No radioactive uptake was observed in the PC3 tumors with (99m)Tc-TCP-1 or HCT116 tumors with inactive peptide. Cy7-TCP-1 activity localized not only in metabolically active tumors, as defined by (18)F-FDG imaging, but also in peritumoral microvasculature. In conclusion, TCP-1 probes may have a distinct targeting mechanism with high selectivity for CRC and tumor-associated vasculature. Molecular imaging with TCP-1 probes appears promising to detect malignant colorectal lesions.

The development of hybrid PET/MRI imaging systems needs to be paralleled with the development of a hybrid intrinsic PET/MRI probes. The aim of this work was to develop and validate a novel radio-superparamagnetic nanoparticle (r-SPNP) for hybrid PET/MRI imaging. This was achieved with the synthesis of superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) that intrinsically incorporated 59Fe and manganese iron oxide nanoparticles (MIONs) that intrinsically incorporated 52Mn. Both [59Fe]-SPIONs and [52Mn]-MIONs were produced through thermal decomposition synthesis. The physiochemical characteristics of the r-SPNPs were assessed with TEM, DLS, and zeta-potential measurements, as well as in imaging phantom studies. The [59Fe]-SPIONs were evaluated in vivo with biodistribution and MR imaging studies. The biodistrubution studies of [59Fe]-SPIONs showed uptake in the liver. This corresponded with major MR signal contrast measured in the liver. 52Mn was produced on natural chromium through the 52Cr(p,n)52Mn reaction. The manganese radionuclides were separated from the target material through a liquid-liquid extraction. The αVβ3 integrin binding of [52Mn]-MION-cRGDs was evaluated with αVβ3 integrin solid phase assays, and the expression of αVβ3 integrin in U87MG xenograft tumors was characterized with fluorescence flow cytometry. [52Mn]-MION-cRGDs were used for in vivo PET and MR imaging of U87MG xenograft tumor bearing mice. PET data showed increased [52Mn]-MION-cRGD uptake compared with untargeted [52Mn]-MIONs. ROI analysis of PET and MRI data showed that MR contrasted corresponded with PET signal. Future work will utilize [52Mn]-MION-cRGDs in other tumor models and with hybrid PET/MRI imaging systems.

Cerium oxide nanoparticles (CONPs) are being investigated for several anti-oxidant applications in medicine. One of their most promising applications is as a radioprotective drug, an area of research in need due to the severe side effects from radiation therapy. In this work, the potential of CONPs as a radioprotective drug is examined using four criteria: favorable biodistribution/pharmacokinetics, low toxicity, ability to protect normal tissue from radiation damage, and lack of protection of tumor. The mechanisms of action of CONPs are also studied. Biodistribution was determined in radiolabeled CONPs with surface coatings including citrate, dextran T10-amine (DT10-NH2), dextran T10-polyethylene glycol (DT10-PEG), dextran T10-sulfobetaine (DT10-SB) and poly(acrylic acid) (PAA), and compared to uncoated. 89Zr was incorporated into CONPs for positron emission tomography (PET) imaging and ex vivo tissue analysis in tumor bearing mice. Compared to uncoated [89Zr]CONPs, coated [89Zr]CONPs showed improved biodistribution, including significantly enhanced renal clearance of PAA- [89Zr]CONPs. The toxicity of CONPs was evaluated in vitro and in vivo, with low toxicity at therapeutic doses. After clinically mimetic radiation therapy, pre-treatment of mice with coated and uncoated CONPs showed greater than 50% reduction of cell death in normal colon tissue, comparable to the clinically available radioprotective drug amifostine. Tumor control after irradiation of spontaneous colon tumors was unchanged with PAA-CONP pre-treatment, while citrate, DT10-PEG, and uncoated CONP pre-treatment had slightly less tumor control. Xenograft tumors were irradiated after pH normalizing treatment with sodium bicarbonate and PAA-CONP pre-treatment. Treatment of these tumors showed slightly less tumor control than irradiation alone or PAA-CONP plus irradiation, demonstrating that the acidic pH of the tumor microenvironment may be the basis of preventing CONPs’ radioprotective properties in tumor. These studies show that, among the variations of CONPs tested, PAA-CONP shows the most promise for its good biodistribution and quick clearance, low toxicity, ability to protect normal tissue, and lack of protection of tumor, meeting all the criteria set forth for an ideal radioprotective drug. Further studies on the effects of pH on CONPs actions may further elucidate their mechanisms of action, advancing them as a candidate for use as a radioprotective drug during radiation therapy.

Le thrombus artériel, ou thrombus intra-luminal (ILT), est impliqué à des degrés divers dans la majorité des pathologies cardiovasculaires dégénératives. Actuellement, sa détection et sa caractérisation repose sur des techniques d'imagerie morphologique qui ne renseignent pas sur l'évolution possible du thrombus en relation avec son profil d'activités biologiques. Dans ce contexte, l'imagerie moléculaire du thrombus a 3 objectifs principaux : (1) la détection du thrombus initial et la recherche de localisations secondaires, (2) l'évaluation du potentiel évolutif du thrombus et de son impact sur les tissus environnants en relation avec son activité biologique, (3) l'évaluation précoce de l'efficacité thérapeutique (avant une modification morphologique). L'objectif de ce travail a été de développer des agents d'imagerie moléculaire des activités biologiques de l'ILT. En ce qui concerne l'activité proagrégante du thrombus artériel, nous avons mis en évidence le lien existant entre l'intensité du signal en Annexine A5 radiomarquée détecté in vivo et l'intensité de l'activité proagrégante dans un modèle d'endocardite infectieuse. Nous avons développé un nouveau traceur élaboré sur la base d'un ligand naturel et de haute affinité (le fucoïdan) de la P-sélectine exprimée par les plaquettes activées, puis validé sa capacité à détecter in vivo le thrombus artériel. En ce qui concerne l'activité plasminergique du thrombus artériel, nous avons utilisé l'aprotinine radiomarquée pour détecter la plasmine dans le thrombus anévrysmal humain ex vivo, puis entamé une collaboration pour optimiser son radiomarquage en utilisant un tag peptidique sans cystéine en position N-terminale. Parallèlement nous avons développé une nouvelle approche basée sur un inhibiteur peptidique conjugué à un agent chélateur bifonctionnel / Arteriel or intra-luminal thrombus (ILT) is involved to various degrees in most of the degenerative cardiovascular diseases. Its detection and characterization is currently based on morphological imaging techniques that do not provide information about its possible evolution in relation to biological activities profile. In this context, molecular imaging of thrombus has three main objectives: (1) detection of the initial thrombus and of secondary locations, (2) evaluation of the thrombus evolutive potential and its impact on surrounding tissues in relationship with its biological activity, and (3) early assessment of therapeutic efficacy (before morphological changes). The aim of this work was to develop molecular imaging agents of biological activities of ILT. Regarding the proaggregant activity, we demonstrated a relationship between annexin A5 signal intensity and vegetation proaggregant activity in a model of infective endocarditis. We also developed a novel P-selectin imaging agent based on a natural high affinity ligand (fucoidan), and validated its ability to detect ILT in vivo. Regarding the plasminergic activity of ILT, we used radiolabelled aprotinin to detect plasmin in human aneurysmal thrombus ex vivo; we also initiated a collaboration to optimize its radiolabelling using a cystein-free tag peptide in N-terminal position. In parallel we developed a new approach based on a peptide inhibitor conjugated with a bifunctional chelating agent

A baixa seletividade dos métodos convencionais para diagnóstico e terapia de neoplasias, bem como o fato de nem sempre alcançarem o sucesso terapêutico desejado, configuram dificuldades para a prática oncológica. Diante disso, os anticorpos monoclonais (AcMs) radiomarcados, aplicados em técnicas diagnósticas, têm se destacado, visto que permitem a entrega seletiva da radiação ao alvo de interesse. A metodologia Radioimunodiagnóstico (RID), utilizando AcM anti-EGFR radiomarcado, possibilita triagem prévia, avaliando a resistência ao tratamento e estratificando pacientes que possam apresentar benefícios à imunoterapia com cetuximabe. Além disso, permite monitorar a progressão da terapia, visando tratamento mais efetivo e direcionado, promulgando a abordagem da medicina personalizada. No Brasil, ainda não há radioimunoconjugado disponível para diagnóstico e seguimento do câncer. Nesse contexto, o objetivo com este trabalho foi o de desenvolver uma formulação farmacêutica para padronizar uma rotina de produção dos radiofármacos para radioimunodiagnóstico de câncer de cabeça e pescoço e de câncer colorretal: cetuximabe-DTPA-111In e cetuximabe-DFO-89Zr. Em adição, corroborar na elucidação dos mecanismos de resistência das células tumorais à terapia com o cetuximabe, através da realização de estudos de ligação do radioimunoconjugado à receptores celulares. Em relação aos radiofármacos estudados, destaca-se que os processos de conjugação do cetuximabe com os quelantes DTPA, na razão molar 1:20, e com o DFO, 1:5, foram bem-sucedidos e otimizados, demonstrando boa reprodutibilidade. Os imunoconjugados apresentaram preservação da imunorreatividade e alta estabilidade quando armazenados a -20°C por até seis meses. Esses imunoconjugados, quando radiomarcado com 111In e 89Zr, exibiram pureza radioquímica superior a 95%, sem necessidade de purificação pós-marcação, e estabilidade por tempo que possibilita seu transporte às clínicas distantes do centro produtor. As análises in vitro do cetuximabe-DTPA-111In em células FaDu-C10 (linhagem resistente) demonstraram percentual inexpressivo de ligação e internalização do radioimunoconjugado, congruindo na explanação do modelo de resistência conferido à linhagem. O estudo de corpo inteiro em MicroPET/TC revelou redução no perfil de captação no grupo de bloqueio, com excesso de cetuximabe não marcado, e intensa captação do cetuximabe-DFO-89Zr pelo tumor de células escamosas no grupo sem bloqueador, confirmando a especificidade in vivo do radioimunoconjugado. Os estudos de biodistribuição dos radiofármacos foram compatíveis com os descritos em literatura e validaram os resultados obtidos por imagens em MicroSPECT/TC e MicroPET/TC, além de apresentarem apreciável captação tumoral, considerando os tempos analisados. A estabilidade alta in vivo e a eficácia da marcação foram confirmadas pela baixa captação óssea e em tecidos não alvos. O melhor intervalo pós-injeção do radiofármaco para avaliação in vivo foi após cinco dias da administração. Conclui-se, portanto, que os radioimunoconjugados para imuno-SPECT e imuno-PET, cetuximabe-DTPA-111In e cetuximabe-DFO-89Zr, são ferramentas promissoras para diagnóstico e monitoramento de câncer receptor específico (EGFR) e para estratificação de pacientes à terapia anti-EGFR, encorajando a continuidade deste projeto para futuros estudos clínicos. / The low selectivity of conventional methods for cancer diagnosis and therapy, as well as the fact that these methods could not achieve the desired therapeutic success, constitute difficulties for the oncological practice. In this regard, radiolabeled monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) applied in diagnostic techniques have been highlighted, since they allow the selective delivery of the radiation to the specific target. The radioimmunodiagnosis methodology (RID), using radiolabeled anti-EGFR mAbs, enables previous screening, evaluating resistance to treatment and stratifying patients who may present benefits to cetuximab immunotherapy. In addition, it allows monitoring the progression of the therapy, aiming for a more effective and directed treatment, leading the personalized medicine approach. A radioimmunoconjugate is not yet available for diagnosis and management of cancer in Brazil. In this context, this research was carried out to develop a pharmaceutical formulation to standardize a routine production of radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and monitoring head and neck cancer and colorectal carcinoma: 111In-DTPA-cetuximab and 89Zr-DFO-cetuximab. In addition, corroborate in the elucidation of the tumor cells resistance mechanisms to EGFR-targeted therapy, through in vitro and in vivo radioimmunoconjugate binding studies to cellular receptors. Regarding to the radiopharmaceuticals studied, cetuximab was conjugated to DTPA chelator at 1:20 molar ratio and to DFO at 1: 5, and these processes were successful and optimized, showing good reproducibility. Immunoconjugates showed preservation of immunoreactivity and high stability when stored at -20 °C for up to 6 months. These immunoconjugates when radiolabeled with 111In and 89Zr have exhibited radiochemical purity above 95%, without any post-labeling purification, and the radioimmunoconjugates have demonstrated stability for a time that allows them to be transported to clinics far from the producer center. 111In-DTPA-cetuximab in vitro analyzes in FaDu-C10 cells (resistant cell line) has presented an inexpressive percentage of binding and internalization of the radioimmunoconjugate, ensuring the resistance model conferred to this cell line. The MicroPET/CT imaging study has revealed a reduction in uptake profile for \"Blocking\" group, with an excess of unlabeling cetuximab, and an intense 89Zr-DFO-cetuximab uptake in squamous cell tumor for \"Non-blocking\" group, that evidenced the in vivo radioimmunoconjugate specificity. The biodistribution studies of the radiopharmaceuticals were well-matched with those described in the literature and they validated the results obtained through the MicroSPECT/CT and MicroPET/ CT images. In addition, these studies in vivo have displayed a substantial tumor uptake, according with the analyzed time points. The radioimmunoconjugate showed high in vivo stability and labeling procedures efficiency, which were confirmed by low bone and non-target tissues uptake. The best post-injection interval for in vivo evaluation is after 5 days of radioimmunoconjugate administration. In conclusion, the radioimmunoconjugates for immuno-SPECT and immuno-PET, 111In-DTPA-cetuximab and 89Zr-DFO-cetuximab, are promising tools for diagnosis and monitoring of specific receptor cancer (EGFR), as well as for stratification of patients to anti-EGFR therapy, and thus encourages the continuity of this project for future clinical trials.