O conhecimento de características das pessoas auxilia a individualizar a maneira de estruturar a prática de tarefas, o fornecimento de informação e a seleção de pessoas mais aptas a desempenhar certas funções. Há evidências de que essas características individuais, como traços de personalidade, podem afetar a aprendizagem de habilidades motoras. Investigar o efeito de diferentes estruturas de prática na aquisição de uma habilidade motora em indivíduos extrovertidos e introvertidos foi o objetivo deste trabalho. Noventa e seis universitários de ambos os sexos foram selecionados depois de responder o EPQ (Eysenck Personality Questionnaire). A tarefa envolveu o pressionamento seqüencial de teclas em duas fases: aquisição (108 tentativas, em três variações da tarefa, exceto os grupos de prática constante, que executaram apenas uma variação) e transferência (imediata e atrasada, cada uma com 12 tentativas). Os participantes foram alocados em seis grupos de prática, formados com a combinação do traço Extroversão/Introversão e a estrutura de prática (constante, blocos e aleatória). As medidas envolveram o erro global, o erro de timing relativo e o erro de timing absoluto. Os resultados indicaram que, além de ter havido aprendizagem da tarefa motora, o desempenho dos introvertidos em relação aos extrovertidos foi melhor no início da aquisição e pior na transferência. Conclui-se que, independentemente da estrutura de prática, as características individuais relativas à Extroversão/Introversão influenciam não só o desempenho, mas também a aprendizagem motora / The knowledge of personal characteristics aids to individualize the way practice is scheduled and information is provided, as well as to selecting better suitable people to carry out certain functions. There is evidence that these individual characteristics, for instance personality traits, might affect the learning of motor skills. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of different practice schedules on the acquisition of a motor skill in extraverts and introverts. 96 undergraduate students were selected after answering the EPQ (Eysenck Personality Questionnaire). The task involved a sequential key-press and the design comprised two phases: acquisition (108 trials, at three task variations, except the constant groups, which performed only one variation) and transfer (immediate and delayed, 12 trials each). The participants were allocated in one of six practice groups, formed by the combination of Extraversion/Introversion trait and the practice schedule (constant, blocked and random). Measurement involved global error, relative timing error and absolute timing error. The results showed that, not only did learning occur, but also the performance of introverts, in comparison with extraverts, was higher at the beginning of acquisition and lower on transfer. As a conclusion, regardless of the practice schedule, individual characteristics of Extraversion/Introversion have influence over motor performance, as well as over motor learning

Investigou-se o efeito do foco de instrução relacionado ao componente da tarefa durante a aprendizagem da pirouette do balé clássico. Setenta e dois estudantes universitários foram divididos em seis grupos (n = 12) de acordo com o foco de instrução: (1) Cabeça, (2) Braços, (3) Tronco, (4) Joelhos, (5) Pés, e (6) Controle. Na fase de aquisição, todos os participantes realizaram 160 tentativas em quatro blocos de 20 tentativas por dia. Nessa fase, todos os grupos receberam instrução geral verbal e visualmente, e em seguida, instrução específica de acordo com o componente. Após uma semana, todos os participantes realizaram o teste de retenção, sem nenhuma instrução. As variáveis dependentes foram as medidas de padrão de movimento, de erro de performance e de tempo de movimento. Os resultados mostraram que todos os grupos melhoraram o desempenho na fase de aquisição, e que a performance foi mantida no teste de retenção. Contudo, não houve diferença entre os grupos. Concluiu-se que instrução específica e instrução geral proporcionam efeito similar na aprendizagem da pirouette / This study investigated the effects of instruction focus regarded to the task component on the learning of the classical ballet pirouette. Seventy-two college students were divided into six groups (n = 12) according to the instruction focus: (1) Head, (2) Arms, (3) Trunk, (4) Knees, (5) Feet, and (6) Control. In the acquisition phase, all participants performed 160 trials in four blocks of 20 trials per day. In this phase, all groups received general verbal and visual instruction, and after that they received specific instruction according to the component. After a week, all of them performed the retention test, with no instruction. Dependent variable involved movement pattern, error of performance, and movement time measures. Results showed that all groups bettered the performance in the acquisition phase, and that the performance was kept in the retention test. However, no differences between the groups were revealed. It was concluded that the specific and general instruction provide a similar effect on the pirouette learning

Os objetivos da dissertação foram investigar (a) os efeitos dos focos interno e externo de atenção na aprendizagem de habilidades motoras em função da automatização (experimento 1) e (b) se os efeitos do foco externo de atenção seriam dependentes daqueles do foco interno anteriores na instrução (experimento 2) e na aquisição (experimento 3). Nos três experimentos a tarefa foi a tacada putter do golfe e os participantes foram adultos jovens de ambos os sexos. A quantidade de tentativas na fase de aquisição também foi igual para os experimentos (100 tentativas). O experimento 1 envolveu dois grupos (foco interno e foco externo), sendo que metade de cada um, ao final da fase de aquisição e no teste de retenção foi testada com uma tarefa distratora. Os resultados mostraram que nenhum grupo alcançou a automatização e, por conseguinte, não aprenderam. O experimento 2 envolveu 4 grupos, sendo dois de foco interno e dois de foco externo na fase de aquisição. A diferença entre os grupos de igual foco esteve na instrução prévia, ou seja, um grupo de cada foco recebeu foco interno durante a instrução. Um outro aspecto do delineamento de experimento foi a utilização de testes de transferência e retenção. Os resultados mostraram aprendizagem apenas para o grupo de foco interno na instrução e foco externo na fase de aquisição. No experimento 3, ao invés de o foco interno ser dado na instrução para um grupo de foco interno e outro de foco externo, ele ocorreu na fase de aquisição. Verificou-se que somente o grupo com foco interno anteriormente ao foco externo na aquisição demonstrou aprendizagem / The objectives of the dissertation were to investigate (a) the effects of internal and external foci of attention in learning motor skills due to automatisation (experiment 1) and (b) if the effects of external focus of attention would be dependent on those of previous internal focus instruction (experiment 2) and on acquisition (experiment 3). In the three experiments the task was the golf putter shot and the participants were young adults of both sexes. The number of attempts in the acquisition phase was also the same for the experiments (100 trials). The first experiment involved two groups (internal focus and external focus), and half of each, at the final phase of the acquisition and retention test was tested with a distracter task. The results showed that no group has achieved automaticity and therefore, they havent learned. The second experiment involved four groups, two of internal focus and two of external focus in the acquisition phase. The difference between the groups of equal focus was on previous instruction, i.e. one group of each focus received internal focus during previous instruction. Another aspect of the design of this experiment was the use of retention and transfer tests. The results showed learning only for the group with internal focus on instruction and external focus on the acquisition phase. In experiment 3, instead of the internal focus instruction being given to an internal and to an external focus group, it occurred in the acquisition phase. It was found that only the group with internal focus previous to the external focus in acquisition demonstrated learning

De acordo com o efeito da interferência contextual (EIC), a prática variada aleatória ou prática com alta interferência contextual (abcbcacbabac) proporciona pior desempenho de aquisição, porém melhor transferência e retenção em comparação à prática variada em blocos ou prática com baixa interferência contextual (aaaabbbbcccc). Entretanto, muitas pesquisas não confirmaram totalmente o EIC, o que põe em dúvida a aplicação do princípio no domínio motor. Através de um procedimento metodológico que prolongou a transferência (aumento do número de tentativas), o objetivo do presente estudo foi verificar se o EIC é um fator duradouro, temporário ou inexistente. Trinta e seis escolares do sexo feminino, com idades entre 12 e 14 anos, foram distribuídas em dois grupos de prática variada em função dos resultados de um teste de entrada: grupo aleatório e grupo em blocos. As tarefas de aquisição foram os saques de voleibol por baixo e por cima, a dois alvos afixados no solo. A tarefa de transferência foi o saque japonês a um terceiro alvo. Todos os saques foram executados a cinco metros da rede. O experimento constou de quatro fases: teste de entrada (oito tentativas), fase de aquisição (288 tentativas), fase de transferência (84 tentativas) e fase de retenção (12 tentativas). Os resultados das medidas de precisão e de padrão de movimento mostraram que não houve diferenças estatisticamente significantes entre os grupos em nenhum dos blocos do experimento. Logo, a estrutura da prática variada não influiu de forma significante no desempenho da tarefa nova. Ademais, os resultados não deram suporte à hipótese de MAGILL & HALL (1990), segundo a qual o EIC ocorre quando as variações da tarefa pertencem a programas motores diferentes. Ainda, o presente estudo reforçou a tendência de que o EIC não ocorre com crianças e com a utilização de tarefas de campo. / According to the contextual interference effect (CIE), practicing several motor skills under random practice or high contextual interference practice (abcbcacbabac) facilitates retention and transfer in comparison to practicing the same tasks under blocked practice or low contextual interference practice (aaaabbbbcccc). This learning phenomenon has led to a considerable amount of research. However, no definite trend in the results has been found, which makes its acceptance in the motor learning domain questionable. By extending the transfer phase (increasing the number of transfer trials), the aim of this study was to assess whether the CIE is temporary, lasting or non-existent. Accordingly, based on the scores of the pre-test, thirty-six schoolgirls (12 -14 years of age) were allocated to either a blocked or a random group. The acquisition tasks were the underhand and overhand volleyball serves, to two targets placed on the floor. The transfer task was the round house (Asian floater) volleyball serve to a third target. All serves were performed five meters away from the net. The experimental design consisted of four phases: pre-test (eight trials), acquisition (288 trials), transfer (84 trials) and retention (12 trials). The results of precision and movement pattern measures did not provide support to the CIE, since there were no significant statistical differences between the groups in any of the phases. The structure of variable practice did not affect the performance of the new task. Likewise, there was no support to the MAGILL & HALL (1990) hypothesis that, when task variations involve learning of different motor programs, the benefit of random practice over blocked practice would be found. Moreover, the present study reinforced the trend that the CIE does not take place in children as well as with field tasks.

No description available.

Estudos mostram que o fornecimento de dicas verbais favorece a aprendizagem de habilidades motoras. Mas há indicativos de que sua eficácia depende da associação entre o conteúdo e a natureza da tarefa. Em habilidades de alta organização, para obter sucesso não basta executar bem cada um dos componentes em separado, pois o aspecto essencial é sua interação. O objetivo deste estudo foi investigar o efeito da utilização das dicas verbais com foco no componente e na interação entre os componentes em uma habilidade classificada como de alta organização. Participaram do experimento 20 voluntários com faixa etária entre 12-14 anos, distribuídos aleatoriamente em três grupos experimentais: grupo com dicas no componente (GDC), na interação entre os componentes (GDI) e grupo controle (GC). A tarefa utilizada foi deslocar-se 8 metros nadando crawl. O nadar crawl foi escolhido como tarefa por envolver um alto nível de interação entre suas partes, já que elas (braçada, respiração e pernada) ocorrem simultaneamente. O tempo de execução da tarefa e o padrão de movimento (soma da pontuação dos componentes da lista de checagem adaptada de Pasetto, 2004) foram usadas como medidas. Para controle da amostra, foram utilizadas medidas antropométricas, estatura e massa corporal e a escala de esforço percebido de Borg. Os resultados apontaram que nesses quesitos os grupos não eram diferentes. Em relação ao bloco de entrada, foi verificado se os grupos partiram do mesmo nível de habilidade. O GDI foi o único a apresentar melhora do padrão de movimento durante a fase de aquisição (AQ1-AQ4) e manutenção do desempenho em relação ao padrão de movimento do último bloco de tentativas da fase de aquisição (AQ4) para os blocos de teste, tanto de retenção (R1 e R2) como de transferência para a velocidade máxima de nado (T1 e T2). Na medida de tempo de execução da tarefa os resultados indicaram que a prática não resultou em melhora significativa do desempenho. Esses resultados permitem concluir que no caso da habilidade nadar, em estando o aprendiz no estágio inicial de aprendizagem, somente a dica verbal com foco de atenção sobre a interação entre os componentes, mais especificamente, sobre o tempo de execução da respiração em relação à ação da braçada, é efetiva para a aquisição do padrão de movimento. Portanto, somente a dica verbal com foco na interação entre os componentes é benéfica à aprendizagem do padrão do movimento de uma habilidade motora classificada como sendo de alta organização / Studies show that providing verbal cues favors the learning of motor skills. But there are indications that their effectiveness depends on the association between the content and nature of the task. In high organization skills to succeed it is not enough to execute each component separately, because the interaction between components is the essential feature. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of the use of verbal cues focusing on the component and on the interaction between components in a skill classified as being high organized. 20 volunteers aged 12-14 years participated in the experiment, randomly distributed in three experimental groups: group with component cues (GDC), group with interaction between components cues (GDI) and control group (GC). The task was to swim 8 meters front crawl stroke. The front crawl stroke was chosen as the task because it involves a high level of interaction between its parts, since they (arm stroke, kick and breathing) occur simultaneously. Time needed to complete the task and the movement pattern (sum of the scores of the components of the checklist adapted from Pasetto, 2004) were used as measures. To control samples, anthropometric measures, as well as height, body mass, and the Borgs perceived effort scale were used. The results showed that at these criteria the groups were not different. In relation to the first block, it was verified that the groups started from the same skill level. The GDI was the only one to show improvement in the movement pattern during the acquisition phase (AQ1-AQ4) and maintenance of performance in relation to the movement pattern on the last block of trials of the acquisition phase (AQ4) on the test blocks, both retention (R1 and R2) and transfer blocks to maximum speed (T1 and T2). In relation to the time needed to complete the task results indicated that the practice did not result in significant improvement in performance. These results indicate that in the case of the front crawl swimming, considering a learner at the initial learning stage, only the verbal cue focusing attention on the interaction between components, more specifically on the execution time of breathing in relation to the arm stroke, is effective for the acquisition of the movement pattern. Therefore, only the verbal cue focusing on the interaction between components is beneficial to the movement pattern learning of a motor skill classified as being of high organized

A broad understanding of motor control has been achieved through research performed on upper extremity reaching, walking on level ground, and static balance. Though invaluable insights have been achieved under these testing paradigms, inherent limitations result in less being known regarding functional movement in weight-bearing. Gait studies require large numbers of consecutive steps to achieve high reliability, static balance is limited to the goal of no movement, and upper extremity reaching lacks insights into feedback from the vestibular system. Here we describe (and provide a supplemental video of) a system for testing and training the performance of a weight-bearing, visuomotor task in the form of a mini-squat according to a sinusoidal trace on a screen. In this work, we determined that by altering both task movement rate and resistance at the knee, a hierarchy of difficulty was achieved at all ages. As age increases, there is a velocity-error tradeoff; speed of movement is attempted to be maintained while error is sacrifieced. When introducing an unexpected force perturbation (rapid release of the resistance of the squat for less than a second), older adults who are least able to match the frequency of the task experience the greatest error and velocity rates during the perturbation. This exposes a possible deficit in the feedback control system of even healthy older adults, where future studies may determine if early intervention to prevent such changes may prevent future injury and disability. When older and younger adults learned to perform the visuomotor task while performing a simultaneous cognitive task, learning was slowed as complexity of the cognitive task increased. In older adults, a difficult cognitive task inhibited acquisition of the squatting task with no apparent improvement in trial error nor coherence. Upon retesting of the motor task, there was no difference between dual-task and single-task trained ability to consolidate the motor task in both age groups, though those that trained under a dual-task condition were more able to automate the motor task as measured by a smaller dual-task cost. This may indicate that dual-task training leads to freeing cognitive resources from attending to a functional movement so that they may attend to other tasks such as what may be happening in the environment. Finally, executive function as measured by the Flanker Test, explained 80% of the variability of final day visuomotor error, being a possible prognostic factor for dual-task interventions. Future directions will determine if increased automaticity of a mini-squat will lead improvement to overall improved functional mobility and reduced lower extremity injuries when functioning in a busy community.

Perceptual speech and voice analysis is an essential skill for all speech-language pathologists, but it is a difficult skill to teach. Even the reliability for experienced experts is variable. Some training literature and practices in speech-language pathology suggest that imitating pathological voices may be useful for developing perceptual judgment. Evidence from other fields suggests that motor experience influences perception. Until now the link between production and perception of voice quality has not been addressed. The purpose of this pilot study is to test the hypothesis that imitating pathological voice samples would improve the perceptual discrimination abilities of naïve, inexperienced listeners. Three expert listeners rated 25 voice samples using a perceptual voice evaluation scale, the Grade, Instability, Roughness, Breathiness, Asthenia, Strain Scale (GIRBAS) (Dejonckere et al., 1996), and identified anchor samples for the training protocol. These expert ratings were used to develop summary expert ratings that served as a comparison for the naïve listener ratings. Two groups of naïve undergraduate listeners received training in evaluating voice quality and in administering the GIRBAS. They completed a pretest, a training session, a homework session, and a post-test. During each activity, they rated 6 voices and provided a confidence rating for their scores. The experimental group imitated the voice samples during the study, and the control group completed the training without supplemental motor experience. It was hypothesized that both listener groups would have improved accuracy and confidence levels between the pretest and post-test, with a larger improvement for the experimental group. Data suggested that training improved naïve listener accuracy and confidence levels and that this improvement was maintained for at least seven days after the initial training. Post-test accuracy for both groups was approximately the same. Imitation did not improve the accuracy of ratings, although those subjects had higher confidence levels. The data supported previous research that found that training improved the accuracy of perceptual voice evaluations. However, the hypothesis that imitation could improve perceptual ratings was not supported by this study and bears further investigation due to the small sample size.

&ldquo / Developmental robotics&rdquo / proposes that, instead of trying to build a robot that shows intelligence once and for all, what one must do is to build robots that can develop. A robot should go through cognitive development just like an animal baby does. These robots should be equipped with behaviors that are simple but enough to bootstrap the system. Then, as the robot interacts with its environment, it should display increasingly complex behaviors. Studies in developmental psychology and neurophysiology provide support for the view that, the animals start with innate simple behaviors, and develop more complex behaviors through the differentiation, sequencing, and combination of these primitive behaviors. In this thesis, we propose such a development scheme for a mobile robot. J.J. Gibson&#039 / s concept of &ldquo / affordances&rdquo / provides the basis of this development scheme, and we use a formalization of affordances to make the robot learn about the dynamics of its interactions with its environment. We show that an autonomous robot can start with pre-coded primitive behaviors, and as it executes its behaviors randomly in an environment, it can learn the affordance relations between the environment and its behaviors. We then present two ways of using these learned structures, in achieving more complex, voluntary behaviors. In the first case, the robot still uses its pre-coded primitive behaviors only, but the sequencing of these are such that new more complex behaviors emerge. In the second case, the robot uses its pre-coded primitive behaviors to create new behaviors.

The purpose of this research is to examine the gender differences that exist when male and female participants complete the mirror-tracing task. This task was chosen because it requires both spatial and psychomotor abilities and is unusual in the sense that it has a far higher correlation with standard spatial ability measures than do most other psychomotor tests. This research will focus on looking at gender differences in speed, accuracy, and practice effects. It will also investigate two personality traits that correlate with performance on the task: introversion and anxiety. Data will be collected from three studies: Experiment 2 of Ackerman&Cianciolo's (1999) study, Experiment 3 of Ackerman&Cianciolo's (2000) study, and Experiment 1 of Field's (1998) study. The results are expected to show that males complete the mirror-tracing task quicker than females during initial, intermediate, and final assessments; however, females will exhibit greater practice effects than males. The results are also anticipated to show there is no significant gender difference in the number of errors made during initial, intermediate, or final assessment. Finally, the number of errors made during initial assessment on the mirror-tracing task is expected to be negatively correlated with introversion and positively correlated with anxiety.