Robust offline performance gains, beyond those that would be anticipated by being exposed to additional physical practice, have been reported during procedural learning. However, practice of unrelated procedural task performance within 4-6 hour after initial practice has been revealed to eliminate offline improvement. The present experiment assessed the relative impact of experiencing supplemental practice of a spatially or a motorically-similar procedural task immediately following practice of a target motor sequence task. Based on a contemporary model of procedural skill acquisition forwarded by Hikosaka and colleagues, we assumed exposure to a spatial compatible motor sequence rather than interfering would support rapid improvement in the production of the spatial variant of the target task without compromising important memory processes, which are conducted offline to improve delayed performance of the target task. Findings revealed the often demonstrated offline gain when the target task was performed in the absence of interfering task practice as well as the elimination of such gains when target task practice was followed with additional practice of either a novel or motorically-similar motor sequence task. While immediate performance of the spatially-similar task was facilitated by preceding target task training, offline gains for the target task no longer emerged. These data are consistent with a central premise of Hikosaka et al.’s model that a spatial reference system plays an important role early during motor sequence learning but highlight the sensitivity of offline gains to task practice order.

It has been suggested that improvement in the performance of many motor sequence tasks such as playing musical instruments, operating complex machinery or tools, and/or performing a variety of athletic activities results from the learner’s ability to parse the movement into fundamental action primitives called motor chunks. Moreover, it has been suggested that the organization of motor chunks within a sequential behavior can be influenced by consolidation occurring outside the boundary of practice during which reorganization can occur leading to faster sequence production. The present study involved modest practice of a discrete sequence production task (DSPT) followed by subsequent assessment of performance of this task either immediately after the completion of practice or after a 24-hr delay. Of critical interest was the change in performance from the end of training to the test phase in three features of the sequence implementation namely sequence initiation, motor chunk transition, and element execution components. It was anticipated that motor chunk transition would be susceptible to significantly greater offline enhancement in the 24-hr delayed test case. Based on the extant literature it was also expected that sequence initiation and/or execution processes may also be sensitive to offline consolidation. No evidence emerged that supported the proposal that motor chunk transitions revealed additional gains following a longer interval between training and test. It is possible this effect was underestimated because of some imprecision in the manner in which motor chunk transitions were identified. There was clear evidence for offline gains for both sequence initiation and element execution processes. These data are difficult to interpret within the framework of a number of contemporary accounts of sequence production such as the dual-processor model in which sequence production is governed by a cognitive and motor processor.

Fluent speech production requires rapid coordination among respiratory, laryngeal, and articulatory processes and is mediated by multiple neural systems (Bohland & Guenther, 2006). Stuttering is a fluency disorder characterized by core deficits in speech motor planning. Previous research indicates people who stutter (PWS) exhibit deficits in speech motor sequence learning and are slower and less accurate over practice relative to fluent speakers (Ludlow, Siren, & Zikira, 2004; Namasivayam & VanLieshout, 2004; Smits-Bandstra & De Nil, 2007; Smits-Bandstra, De Nil, & Saint-Cyr, 2006). Furthermore, the neural bases of impaired speech motor sequence learning in PWS are not well understood. We present a study in which PWS (n=18) and persons with fluent speech (PFS) (n=17) were taught phonotactically illegal (e.g. gbesb) and phonotactically legal (e.g. blerk) speech motor sequences over two practice sessions. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) was used to investigate brain regions underlying the production of learned illegal syllables and novel illegal syllables. With practice, subjects produced syllables more accurately, which is indicative of motor sequence learning. Our findings suggest a speech motor performance deficit in PWS. Furthermore, these findings indicate speech motor sequence learning relies on a speech motor sequence learning network.

Le striatum, tout particulièrement sa région sensorimotrice, est connu pour jouer un rôle crucial dans l’expression de routines motrices qui nécessitent la réalisation d’une suite de mouvements. Dans ce travail, nous avons étudié la contribution respective des neurones efférents et des interneurones cholinergiques du striatum dans les processus qui sous - tendent l’expression de séquences motrices automatisées, en enregistrant l’activité unitaire de ces deux populations neuronales chez des singes entraînés à effectuer des mouvements d’atteinte manuelle de cibles. Par cette approche, nous avons examiné les modifications d’activité de ces neurones lors d’un changement des conditions de performance durant la réalisation de la séquence de mouvements. Ainsi en manipulant l’ordre habituel ou la structure temporelle de la séquence, nous avons montré, au sein du striatum sensorimoteur, que les neurones efférents et les interneurones cholinergiques participent au traitement des informations spatiales et temporelles qui caractérisent une séquence motrice automatisée. Par ailleurs, nous avons montré que ces deux populations neuronales sont différentiellement activées lorsque l’ordre de la séquence est visuellement spécifié ou déterminé sur la base d’informations mémorisées. Ces résultats apportent des informations essentielles pour mieux comprendre les mécanismes neuronaux impliqués, au niveau du striatum sensorimoteur, dans le contrôle des séquences motrices automatisées. / It is well known that the striatum, especially its sensorimotor part, is involved in the expression of motor skills which require the production of a sequence of movements. In this study, we addressed the respective contribution of efferent neurons and cholinergic interneurons of the striatum in the processes underlying the expression of motor sequences, by recording single unit activity of these two neuronal populations in monkeys performing sequential arm reaching movements. By this experimental approach, we examined activity modulations of these neurons during a change in the conditions of performance of the motor sequence. Thus, by changing the habitual order or the temporal structure of the sequence, we underlined that within sensorimotor striatum, efferent neurons and cholinergic interneurons are involved in the processing of spatial and temporal information which characterize an automatic motor sequence. In addition, we reported differential activations of these two neuronal populations depending on whether the serial order of the sequence of movements is visually cued or based on internally stored information. Taken together, these results provide essential information in order to better understand the neuronal mechanisms involved, within the sensorimotor part of striatum, in the control of the automatic motor sequences.

This work presents optogenetics and real-time computer vision techniques to non-invasively manipulate and monitor neural activity with high spatiotemporal resolution in awake behaving Caenorhabditis elegans. These methods were employed to dissect the nematode's mechanosensory and motor circuits and to elucidate the neural control of wave propagation during forward locomotion. Additionally, similar computer vision methods were used to automatically detect and decode fluorescing DNA origami nanobarcodes, a new class of fluorescent reporter constructs.

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This thesis named Powertrain of an four-cylinder aircraft engine dealing with configuration of the powertrain of a flat four-cylinder engine with ordered basic parameters. The thesis is focused on configuration design of the crank machanism and sequence ignition, balancing of centrifugal and reciprocating forces and their moment, conceptual design of crankshaft and its stress calculation. The thesis describing calculation of torsional vibration as well.

Alpha oscillations (8-13 Hz) have been suggested to play an important role in dynamic neural processes underlying learning and memory. The goal of this work was to scrutinize the role of alpha oscillations in communication within a cortico-cerebellar network implicated in motor sequence learning. To this end, we conducted two EEG experiments using a serial reaction time task. In the first experiment, we explored changes in alpha power and cross-channel alpha coherence as subjects learned a motor sequence. We found a gradual decrease in spectral alpha power over left premotor cortex (PMC) and sensorimotor cortex (SM1) during learning blocks. In addition, alpha coherence between left PMC/SM1 and left cerebellar crus I was specifically decreased during sequence learning, possibly reflecting a functional decoupling in the broader motor learning network. In the second experiment in a different cohort, we applied 10Hz transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS), a method shown to entrain local oscillatory activity, to left M1 (lM1) and right cerebellum (rCB) during sequence learning. We observed a tendency for diminished learning following rCB tACS compared to sham, but not following lM1 tACS. Learning-related alpha power following rCB tACS was increased in left PMC, possibly reflecting increase in local inhibitory neural activity. Importantly, learning-specific alpha coherence between left PMC and right cerebellar lobule VIIb was enhanced following rCB tACS. These findings provide strong evidence for a causal role of alpha oscillations in controlling information transfer in a premotor-cerebellar loop during motor sequence learning. Our findings are consistent with a model in which sequence learning may be impaired by enhancing premotor cortical alpha oscillation via external modulation of cerebellar oscillations.:1 List of Abbreviations 2 Introduction 2.1 Motor Learning Stages 2.2 Motor Learning Tasks 2.3 Motor Learning Network 2.4 Theoretical Models of Motor Learning 2.5 Functional Connectivity of Motor Brain Regions 2.6 Effective Connectivity of Motor Brain Regions 2.7 Oscillations in Neuronal Communication 2.8 Alpha Oscillations 2.8.1 Role of Alpha Oscillations in Motor Sequence Learning 2.9 Transcranial Electric Stimulation 2.9.1 Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) 2.10 Summary of Study Rationale 3 Publication 4 Summary 5 List of References 6 Supplementary Materials 7 Contribution of Authors / Darstellung des eigenen Beitrags 8 Declaration of Authorship 9 Curriculum Vitae 10 Publication and Presentation 11 Acknowledgement / Danksagung

Previous studies have shown that persons with Parkinson’s disease (pwPD) share specific deficits in learning new sequential movements, but the neural substrates of this impairment remain unclear. In addition, the degree to which striatal dopaminergic denervation in PD affects the cortico-striato-thalamo-cerebellar motor learning network remains unknown. We aimed to answer these questions using fMRI in 16 pwPD and 16 healthy age-matched control subjects while they performed an implicit motor sequence learning task. While learning was absent in both pwPD and controls assessed with reaction time differences between sequential and random trials, larger error-rates during the latter suggest that at least some of the complex sequence was encoded. Moreover, we found that while healthy controls could improve general task performance indexed by decreased reaction times across both sequence and random blocks, pwPD could not, suggesting disease-specific deficits in learning of stimulus-response associations. Using fMRI, we found that this effect in pwPD was correlated with decreased activity in the hippocampus over time. Importantly, activity in the substantia nigra (SN) and adjacent bilateral midbrain was specifically increased during sequence learning in pwPD compared to healthy controls, and significantly correlated with sequence-specific learning deficits. As increased SN activity was also associated (on trend) with higher doses of dopaminergic medication as well as disease duration, the results suggest that learning deficits in PD are associated with disease progression, indexing an increased drive to recruit dopaminergic neurons in the SN, however, unsuccessfully. Finally, there were no differences between pwPD and controls in task modulation of the cortico-striato-thalamo-cerebellar network. However, a restricted nigral-striatal model showed that negative modulation of SN to putamen connection was larger in pwPD compared to controls during random trials, while no differences between the groups were found during sequence learning. We speculate that learning-specific SN recruitment leads to a relative increase in SN- > putamen connectivity, which returns to a pathological reduced state when no learning takes place

La présente étude avait pour but d’explorer les modulations fonctionnelles putaminales du signal de spectroscopie par résonance magnétique (SRM) combiné du glutamate et de la glutamine (Glx), ainsi que de l’acide γ-aminobutyrique (GABA) en lien avec l’apprentissage d’une séquence motrice. Nous avons émis l’hypothèse que les concentrations de Glx seraient spécifiquement augmentées pendant et après la pratique d’une telle tâche, et ce comparativement à une condition d’exécution motrice simple conçue pour minimiser l’apprentissage. La tâche d’appuis séquentiels des doigts (« finger taping task ») utilisée est connue pour induire un apprentissage moteur évoluant en phases, avec une progression initialement rapide lors de la première session d’entraînement (phase rapide), puis lente lors de sessions subséquentes (phase lente). Cet apprentissage est également conçu comme dépendant de processus « on-line » (pendant la pratique) d’acquisition et « off-line » (entre les périodes de pratique) de consolidation de la trace mnésique de l’habilité motrice. Une grande quantité de données impliquent le système de neurotransmission glutamatergique, principalement par l’action de ses récepteurs N-Méthyl-D-aspartate (NMDAR) et métabotropiques (mGluR), dans une multitude de domaine de la mémoire. Quelques-unes de ces études suggèrent que cette relation s’applique aussi à des mémoires de type motrice ou dépendante du striatum. De plus, certains travaux chez l’animal montrent qu’une hausse des concentrations de glutamate et de glutamine peut être associée à l’acquisition et/ou consolidation d’une trace mnésique. Nos mesures de SRM à 3.0 Tesla, dont la qualité ne s’est avérée satisfaisante que pour le Glx, démontrent qu’une telle modulation des concentrations de Glx est effectivement détectable dans le putamen après la performance d’une tâche motrice. Elles ne nous permettent toutefois pas de dissocier cet effet putativement attribuable à la plasticité du putamen associée à l’apprentissage moteur de séquence, de celui de la simple activation neuronale causée par l’exécution motrice. L’interprétation de l’interaction non significative, montrant une plus grande modulation par la tâche motrice simple, mène cependant à l’hypothèse alternative que la plasticité glutamatergique détectée est potentiellement plus spécifique à la phase lente de l’apprentissage, suggérant qu’une seconde expérience ainsi orientée et utilisant une méthode de SRM plus sensible au Glx aurait donc de meilleures chances d’offrir des résultats concluants. / The present study explored motor learning-related functional changes in putaminal combined glutamate and glutamine (Glx) and γ-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) signal. It was hypothesized that Glx concentrations would specifically increase during and after learning of a sequential finger tapping task (sFTT), as compared to execution of a simple motor task designed to elicit minimal learning. Learning of sFTT is known to evolve in an initial fast progressing stage during the first practice session (fast learning stage), followed by a slower progression during later sessions (slow learning stage). It is also thought to depend on both on-line (during practice sessions) acquisition and off-line (between practice sessions) consolidation processes to create, transform and assure retention of a motor skill memory trace. A body of data implicates glutamatergic neurotransmission, especially through its N-Methyl-D-aspartate (NMDAR) and metabotropic (mGluR) receptors, in many memory systems, some of which apply to motor learning and striatal-dependant learning. Moreover, some animal studies suggest that Glx concentrations can be upregulated in relation to memory acquisition and/or consolidation. Our MRS acquisitions, of which the quality happened to be sufficient only for Glx quantification, allowed the detection of an augmentation in putaminal Glx occurring after motor task execution. However, our data could not ascribe this modulation specifically to motor learning related plastic changes, at the exclusion of simple neural activation related to motor execution. Nevertheless, the interpretation of the non-significant interaction, showing a larger Glx change in response to the simple motor task compared to sFTT, leads to the possibility that the detected glutamatergic plasticity may be specifically associated to the slow learning phase. We therefore suggest that testing this alternate hypothesis in a second experiment, using an MRS technique with more sensibility to Glx could yield more convincing results.