Rock glaciers are tongue-shaped or lobate masses of rock debris which occur below cliffs and talus in many alpine regions. They are best developed in continental alpine climates where it is cold enough to preserve a core or matrix of ice within the rock mass but insufficiently snowy to produce true glaciers. Previous reports have identified and briefly described several rock glaciers in the Olympic Mountains, Washington {Long 1975a, pp. 39-41; Nebert 1984), but no detailed integrative study has been made regarding the geomorphic character, age,and distribution of these features.

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(理学) / 甲第19511号 / 理博第4171号 / 新制||理||1599(附属図書館) / 32547 / 京都大学大学院理学研究科地球惑星科学専攻 / (主査)准教授 河上 哲生, 教授 平島 崇男, 教授 山 明 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Science / Kyoto University / DFAM

This document is submitted in partial fulfilment for the degree: Masters of Architecture [Professional] at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2015 / The focus of architecture in South Africa is often centered on intense urban areas in the country. However, important though these areas are, they represent only one facet of the greater country. The rural areas around South Africa are repeatedly overlooked. Added to that, our rich heritage and increasingly unique and threatened relationship with the natural systems around us is often sidelined. Our relationship with the natural world is a complicated one. Humans, perhaps the only species on earth able to do so, have the opportunity to decide whether to live symbiotically with nature or parasitically. Unfortunately the choice is often the latter. One of the areas where our rather strained and openended relationship with the natural world is most apparent is in the impoverished rural Bonjaneni Community of the Amazizi Tribal Authority located in the Okhahlamba District of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Mankind’s negative impacts on this regions natural mechanisms are being felt locally and nationally in three particular areas that form the key points of focus for the thesis: grasslands, water systems and the decline of the Cape Vulture population. Grassland is of utmost importance ecologically, economically and socially for the region, without healthy grassland community livestock cannot survive, thatch cannot be gathered and the landscape will become prone to severe erosion during the rainy season. Erosion negatively affects the Tugela River water catchment basin too. Without healthy vegetation cover the landscape and community will become prone to flooding. Silt from the erosion will impact numerous dams further downstream that supply water to KwaZulu-Natal and the economic heartland of South Africa, Gauteng. The repercussions of a threatened population of Cape Vultures are also of concern. Without the specialised scavenger animal corpses will be left to fester in the sun, developing carrion borne diseases that can negatively affect the health of pets, people and livestock. These problems result in a considerable financial burden to the community and the government, yet these are all problems that can be addressed through responsible stewardship of the land and an awareness of our position in the natural world. / EM2017

We examine the role of forest blowdown in lake acidification. Our approach combines geographic information systems (GIS) and digital remote sensing with traditional field methods. The methods of analysis consist of direct observation, interpretation of satellite imagery and aerial photographs, and statistical comparison of two geographical distributions-one representing forest blowdown and another representing lake chemistry. Spatial and temporal associations between surface water pH and landscape disturbance are strong and consistent in the Adirondack Mountains of New York. In 43 Adirondack Mountain watersheds, lake pH is associated with the percentage of the watershed area blown down and with hydrogen ion deposition (Spearman rank correlation coefficients of -0.67 and -0.73, respectively). Evidence of a temporal association is found at Big Moose Lake and Jerseyfield Lake in New York and the Lygners Vider Plateau of Sweden. We conclude that forest blowdown facilitates the acidification of some lakes by altering hydrologic pathways so that waters (previously acidified by acid deposition and/or other sources) do not experience the neutralization normally available through contact with subsurface soils and bedrock. Increased pipeflow is suggested as a mechanism that may link the biogeochemical impacts of forest blowdown to lake chemistry.

Upper Triassic strata that lie between the Chinle Formation and Nugget Sandstone along the south flank of the Uinta Mountains in northeastern Utah are distinctive. In the past, these rocks have been lumped together with the overlying or underlying units. These strata are equivalent to the Bell Springs Member of the Nugget Sandstone as defined in Wyoming and perhaps to the Rock Point Formation of the Chinle Formation near the Four Corners region. In this study, these rocks will be called the Bell Springs Formation following the usage of Lucas (1993) in Wyoming. The unit is regionally mappable in northeastern Utah, and is the sedimentologic transition from the fluvial-lacustrine environment of the Chinle Formation to the eolian depositional environment of the Nugget Sandstone. The Bell Springs Formation is comprised of interbedded fine- to medium-grained sandstone and siltstone, as well as planar laminated mudstone. The unit varies from planar laminated sandstone with abundant ripple marks, to cross-bedded sandstone that contains scoured channels filled with mudstone or sandstone. The mudstone beds are commonly mottled and contain desiccation cracks while both the mudstone and sandstone beds have rip-up clasts, occasional bioturbation, and small salt crystal casts. The thinly bedded mudstone and siltstone beds are purple to red to brown, and the sandstone beds vary in color from red to brown to orange or tan with green and gray mottling. The ripple structures with mud drapes indicate fluctuating deposition in low energy water. The presence of desiccation cracks, plant root traces, small eolian sand dunes, gypsum casts, crinkly algal mat beds, and bioturbation indicate intermittent subaerial exposure. Fluvial deposits by meandering streams, including point bar, levee, and splay deposits comprise a large part of this formation. Rocks of the Bell Springs Formation have previously been interpreted as either tidal flat or fluvial/lacustrine deposits. A tidal flat environment certainly may produce some of the features found in these deposits, such as, alternating erosion and deposition of interfingering channels and scours with rip-up clasts, ripples, flaser bedding, desiccation cracks, and bioturbation; however, these rocks lack some of the most important characteristics of tidal flat deposits such as herringbone-cross-stratification, general fining upward successions, and regionally associated sediments that would typically be found in shallow marine environments. We conclude that the sedimentary characteristics and regional setting of these rocks fit best with a fluvial environment interpreted as a meandering system being deposited on a broad floodplain in an arid to semi-arid climate. This depositional environment existed between the expanding Nugget Sandstone erg and the shrinking Chinle Formation as desertification increased during the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic in what is now the western United States. This study not only helps solidify the understanding of the depositional history of these strata, it also clarifies the nomenclature of these formations for future mapping and research.

Bryan Tikalsky Department of Geography Master of Science Mountain water resources are essential to those living along the Salt Lake City urban corridor. Water resource planners base their policy on twentieth century climate conditions and streamflow records. Often these records only account for a small amount of the natural variability in streamflow and climate. By utilizing dendrochronology this study seeks to better understand variability of streamflow in the Jordan River Drainage Basin over the last 828 years. A GIS model was used to identify potential sampling sites where tree growth would be sensitive to climate and factors affecting stream run-off. Over eighty samples from ancient limber pine (Pinus flexilis) and Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) were obtained to perform the reconstruction. Results indicate significant correlation between tree growth and streamflow. A multiple linear regression model created with tree-ring width as the predictor of October - March American Fork River streamflow explained 51.7% of streamflow variance. Analysis of the reconstruction indicates that present records do not adequately represent potential streamflow variability, and several droughts of greater severity and length occurred before the instrumental period.

Geologic mapping of the Jessen Butte 7.5 minute quadrangle and the gathering of structural data throughout the quadrangle was used to determine the paleostress regime during the Laramide Orogeny along the north flank of the Uinta Mountains. The Henrys Fork thrust fault and the Uinta thrust fault are major north bounding faults and within the Jessen Butte quadrangle these faults transfer deformation from one to the other. The Jessen Butte thrust fault is a fault splay that splits off from the Henrys Fork thrust fault. Complex fold geometries were created by the interaction of the faults. Bedding plane orientation, mode I fracture orientation, and fault kinematic indicators were measured throughout the quadrangle. A shortening direction to the NE was recorded by all of these different types of measurements, which match with the proposed regional stress field for the Laramide Orogeny. In a few cases N-S shortening was also recorded in the data, which may be from the local stresses in the area due to pre-existing weaknesses in the basement rocks. Finally, for creation of the cross sections, a positive flower structure model best fit the fold geometry of the rocks in the Jessen Butte quadrangle. This type of fold forms in areas which experience strike-slip motion. This suggests that, at least along the north side of the Uinta Mountains, deformation occurred in a uniform stress field during the Laramide Orogeny, with some influence from the pre-existing weakness inherited from the Precambrian basement.

Voluminous Eocene to Oligocene intermediate to silicic volcanic rocks related to subduction erupted throughout the Great Basin and were supplanted by bimodal eruptions of basalt and rhyolite related to extension in the Miocene. Locally, in the northern East Tintic Mountains of central Utah, this important transition is marked by a distinctive package of mafic alkaline magmas that reveal important details about the nature of this fundamental change. A late Oligocene anorthoclase-bearing shoshonite lava in the Boulter Peak quadrangle contains megacrysts of anorthoclase, with phenocrysts of olivine, clinopyroxene, magnesiohastingsite, magnetite, and apatite. The anorthoclase grains occur as glomerocrysts with irregular, resorbed edges, indicating they are not in equilibrium with the mafic phenocrysts in the shoshonite. They are interpreted to be xenocrysts incorporated into an ascending mafic magma that came into contact with a partially crystallized syenite. The mafic magma involved was probably derived by partial melting of the lithospheric mantle based on its high Mg/Fe ratios, magnesian phenocrysts, high water content, and high ratios of lithophile to high field strength elements. The syenite body likely crystallized from a highly differentiated melt. The 40Ar/39Ar age of the shoshonite is 25.35±0.04 Ma, and appears to represent the transition from subduction before the onset of extension (Christiansen et al., 2007). Other Oligocene mafic units in the area may represent different variations of the mafic alkaline endmember for the mixing process. The Gardison Ridge dike, a potassic alkaline basalt with an 40Ar/39Ar age of 26.3±0.3 Ma, contains olivine and clinopyroxene phenocrysts that are compositionally very similar to those found in the shoshonite. Other mafic dikes have even higher alkalis. All of these dikes have similar trace element patterns, with negative Nb and positive Pb anomalies, and high Ba and K concentrations. The minette of Black Rock Canyon (28.45±0.13 Ma) also contains high alkalis, particularly K, and its trace element pattern shows positive Ba and negative Nb anomalies. The clinopyroxene phenocrysts in the minette are also very similar to those found in the other alkaline rocks. The high water contents of these units are evidenced by amphibole in the shoshonite, phlogopite in the minette, and the lack of plagioclase phenocrysts in the basaltic dikes. The ages, mineral assemblages, and chemical compositions show that these late Oligocene alkaline magmas formed after a shallowly subducting oceanic slab peeled away from the overlying continental lithosphere and rolled back. Hot asthenosphere flowed in to replace the subducting plate and caused partial melting of the variably metasomatized lithospheric mantle. These alkaline magmas include the shoshonite, mafic alkaline dikes, and minette of Boulter Peak; they mark the transition from older subduction-related magmatism to Miocene magmatism caused by lithospheric extension.

The Diligencia Formation comprises approximately 1600 meters of OligoMiocene continental siliciclastic sedimentary rocks and intercalated basaltic lavas, located in the eastern Orocopia Mountains of southeastern California. These deposits exhibit characteristics which may link them to tectonic processes diagnostic of both the Basin and Range physiographic province of North America, and the Transverse Ranges province of California. These different processes were active, however, during different periods in the history of the formation. The early Diligencia Basin had an asymmetric half-graben geometry, and formed in response to presently north-south directed extension along a listric detachment located along the northern basin margin. Facies associations determined from five measured sections through the lower Diligencia Formation reveal a distinctly asymmetric distribution of facies across the basin. The deposits along the northern margin of the basin are characterized by cobble and boulder conglomerates and very coarse-grained sandstones unconformably overlying marine sedimentary rocks of the Eocene Maniobra Formation. These sedimentary rocks represent a high-gradient alluvial fan system which developed against the steep escarpment of the listric detachment fault. These deposits contrast with those present along the southern basin margin. The sedimentary rocks on the southern margin are characterized by pebble and cobble breccias, pebble conglomerates, very coarse- to fine-grained sandstones and gypsiferous mudstones. These facies define a system of low-gradient alluvial fans/fluvial braidplain that were deposited on the relatively gently sloping hangingwall block of the detachment, and that interfingered with deposits of a playa lake complex that formed in the basin interior. The age of these deposits, basin geometry, and the style of sedimentation are very reminiscent of half-graben basins known from the Colorado River Extensional Corridor of the Basin and Range. Paleomagnetic studies indicate that the block containing the Diligencia Formation may have been rotated more than 90° about a vertical axis since deposition ceased. In addition, regional palinspastic reconstructions indicate that the basin may have been significantly further north and east in the Miocene. These observations suggest that the Diligencia Basin may be genetically related to similar basins in the western Basin and Range, and that Diligencia Formation can be better understood if viewed in this tectonic context. Sometime after deposition had ceased, the rocks of the Diligencia Formation were deformed under an imposed compressional stress field in association with activity along the Clemens Well Fault, a major, dextral wrench fault in the region. The action of the Clemens Well Fault also juxtaposed the Diligencia Basin with distinctive crystalline terranes of the central and western Orocopia Mountains, including the Mesozoic Orocopia Schist. The association of these rock types with structures characteristic of dextral strike-slip deformation have led most workers to tie the Orocopia Mountains to similar complexes in the Transverse Ranges province of southern California. In fact, the post-depositional history of the Diligencia Formation can best be understood only in the context of Transverse Ranges-style tectonic processes. The complicated history of the sedimentary and volcanic rocks of the Diligencia Formation has made it difficult for previous workers to sort out an appropriate tectonic context in which to describe them. Recent advances in our understanding of the sedimentary responses to Tertiary rifting in the western Basin and Range, provide a new opportunity to evaluate the history of these deposits and this work has determined that the Diligencia Formation has had close ties to both the Basin and Range and the Transverse Ranges at different times during its complex history. / Master of Science

In this study an attempt was made to collect all plant species growing on the Beaver Dam Mountains, and to arrange them into a workable flora of the area. A study was also made of the collections in the herbaria of Brigham Young University and Dixie Junior College. From this information keys and descriptions for all plant families and genera were written, as well as keys to all the species. For each species the following information was also given; the distribution in North America, the elvational range, period of flowering, and the location on the Beaver Dam Mountains in which the species was collected. Some 667 species in 308 genera and 78 families are recognized as occurring on this range. This study also shows extensions of the geographical range of many of the species of plants; as a result several new records for the state of Utah are listed. These are: Aloysia wrightii (Gray) Heller, epilobium nevadense Munz, Leptochloa filiformis (Lam.) Beauv., and Schismus arabicus Nees.