Oxidative stress, the imbalance of free radical generation with antioxidant defenses, leads to cellular inflammation, apoptosis and cell death. This compromised environment results in debilitating diseases, such as oral mucositis (OM), atherosclerosis, and ischemia/reperfusion injury. Antioxidant therapeutics has been a proposed strategy to ameliorate these imbalances and maintain homeostatic environments. However, the success of these approaches, specifically curcumin, has been limited due to characteristics such as hydrophobicity and high reactivity when released as bolus doses to contest to oxidative stress induced diseases. The development of a controlled release system to aid in protection of the antioxidant capacity of curcumin, as well as a tunable system to aid in proper rate of release for disease can overcome these limitations. Previously, the use of a poly(beta-amino ester) (PBAE) chemistry has been developed in Dziubla and Hilt laboratories to provide desirable properties. The dynamic mechanical analysis and efficacy in cellular protection has been studied, yet the sensitivity and responsiveness of these polymers to abnormal environments found within oxidative stress compromised environments are unknown. In this work, a series of networks were comprised of different molar ratios of modified acrylated curcumin, poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate, and a primary diamine crosslinker to create tunable hydrolytically degradable crosslinked hydrogels. I hypothesized a consumption rate difference of free curcumin and curcumin as a released product from the crosslinked network in the presence of a free radical generating system. After the consumption profiles of each were reported differently, the experimental data was translated into a kinetic rate model to identify quantitative consumption rate parameters of curcumin and active film degradation products. The effect on the released products arose the question of curcumin consumption in other oxidizing environments. These networks were then investigated in low concentrations of a hydrogen peroxide insult, and interestingly showed sensitivity to hydrolysis by recovering significantly more curcumin at an accelerated rate of release. Identifying the sensitivity of these tunable networks to environmental stimuli, they were then presented to a series of low pH environments, which significantly reduced the degradation time, finding a dependence of rate of release on the weight loading of curcumin present within the film. To translate these responsive materials to an application-based system, the curcumin conjugated PBAE polymers were investigated as an oral rinse drug delivery system for the treatment of radiation-induced OM in a hamster model. Radiation-induced OM onset and severity was reduced with a 20 wt% microparticle loaded mucoadhesive system that releases curcumin over 24 hours, providing promising results of a therapeutic effect from curcumin when incorporated in to a controlled release delivery system. Overall, curcumin conjugated PBAE polymers show selectivity of hydrolysis in abnormal environments related to oxidative stress. This information is beneficial to the proper design and loading of antioxidant therapeutics within crosslinked polymers, giving the ability to tune release to treat and deliver based on the environment’s insult. This can advance the potential use for antioxidant therapeutics in pharmaceutical applications in the future.

Mucositis refers to the widespread damage of mucosal surfaces throughout the length of the alimentary tract (AT) that can occur during cancer treatment. Its development is an important clinical problem that complicates and limits treatment options as well as adversely affecting the quality of life and treatment outcomes for patients. Recent studies directed at determining the pathobiology of mucositis have indicated increasing evidence for the role of transcription factors, such as nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), and certain pro-inflammatory cytokines, for example tumour necrosis factor (TNF), interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and interleukin- 6 (IL-6), in its development. This thesis developed from an initial clinical investigation in which the expression of NF-κB and COX-2 in oral mucosa was investigated in patients undergoing chemotherapy. Increased levels of NF-κB were demonstrated in the buccal mucosa following chemotherapy. It is well established that mucositis occurs in different sites of the AT. The aims of this research, therefore, were to compare and contrast the changes that do occur at different sites of the AT following chemotherapy in an established animal model (Dark Agouti (DA) rat). Furthermore, the studies were conducted to determine whether changes in tissue and serum levels of NF-κB and pro-inflammatory cytokines occurred following chemotherapy and, with respect to tissue levels, identify whether there were differences in expression at different sites throughout the AT. The final aim was to examine whether the histological changes and changes in pro-inflammatory cytokines were affected by the type of chemotherapy drug used. The effects of three chemotherapy drugs with different mechanisms of action (irinotecan, methotrexate and 5-fluorouracil) were investigated, all of which can cause mucositis in the clinical setting. The thesis is divided into a Literature Review (Chapter 1) followed by 4 research papers: Chapter 2 – “Nuclear factor- κB (NF- κB) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression in the oral mucosa following cancer chemotherapy” Chapter 3 -“Characterisation of mucosal changes in the alimentary tract following administration of irinotecan: Implications for the pathobiology of mucositis” Chapter 4 – “Is the pathobiology of chemotherapy-induced alimentary tract mucositis influenced by the type of mucotoxic drug administered?”, Chapter 5 – “Serum levels of NF-κB and pro-inflammatory cytokines following administration of mucotoxic drugs”. Chapter 6 provides an overall summary and discussion of the results. Previous research has indicated that following administration of chemotherapeutic agents there may be subclinical changes occurring in the mucosa prior to obvious clinical manifestations. The results presented in this thesis also demonstrate this in both humans and animals following administration of chemotherapy. Immunohistochemical analysis of tissue taken from the oral cavity, jejunum and colon from the DA rats following chemotherapy demonstrated that changes in NF-κB and the pro-inflammatory cytokines, TNF, IL-1β and IL- 6, occurred at all sites over a 72 hour time period. This was evident before severe histological evidence of mucositis were observed such as epithelial atrophy in the oral mucosa, atrophy, blunting and fusion of the villi in the jejunum and crypt ablation in the jejunum and colon. Furthermore, each of the three drugs caused different patterns of NF-κB and pro-inflammatory cytokine expression in the tissues; in spite of this, however, histological features of damage were similar. With respect to serum levels of NF-κB and pro-inflammatory cytokines, differences were observed between the serum and tissue levels. Generally, serum changes followed initial histological changes in the tissues, or occurred simultaneously with histological changes. The mechanisms behind this are unclear; however it may be that elevated cytokines in the tissues “overflow” into the serum as tissue damage increases. Furthermore, the use of serum cytokine level measurement to predict mucosal damage is limited because of the differences in timing and short time intervals between changes in the serum and tissues. This thesis has provided additional important information on mucositis pathobiology and highlights its complexity. In particular, it has provided new evidence supporting the notion that mucositis is not restricted to the oral cavity and that other sites of the AT are also affected. Furthermore, these results confirm previous data indicating that subclinical changes occur in the mucosa prior to the development of obvious histological damage or clinical manifestations of mucositis. Contrary to previous reports, these studies have indicated that, although the clinical and histological changes may be similar, the alterations in NF-κB and pro-inflammatory cytokines in the tissues are affected by the type of drug used. This has important implications in the management and prevention of mucositis in the clinical setting particularly when multi-drug or chemotherapy-radiotherapy regimens are used. A common pathway that leads to mucosal damage is yet to be determined. The fact that serum levels appear to reflect the “global” nature of the effects of chemotherapy, highlights the fact that ongoing research needs to be directed, not necessarily at specific side effects, but rather how side effects of chemotherapy are interrelated so that better patient management can be achieved and ultimately provide optimum treatment and better survival for patients with cancer. / http://proxy.library.adelaide.edu.au/login?url= http://library.adelaide.edu.au/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=1321557 / Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University of Adelaide, School of Dentistry, 2008

Objective: Evaluate a patient-reported-oral mucositis scale (PROMS) on its own and in relation to existing measures of mucositis. Methods: 50 patients with head and neck cancer receiving radiotherapy were examined before cancer treatment, twice weekly during 6-7 weeks of therapy and post-therapy. Oral mucositis (OM) signs were evaluated clinically using NCI-CTCAE v.3, OMAS criteria and Total VAS-OMAS score. OM symptoms were recorded on PROMS-VAS questionnaires. Albumin and polymorphonuclear neutrophils were measured in saline rinses. The PROMS data were subjected to Spearman rank correlations versus the other clinical and biomarker data. Results: 33 participants completed the study. Significant correlations (p<.001) were seen between PROMS scores and other clinical and biomarker indicators of OM at a group level. Significant variations were seen between individuals. Conclusion: The PROMS tool demonstrates good correlation with other clinical indicators of OM and adds novel dimensions to currently available methods of assessments used for quantification of OM.

Objective: Evaluate a patient-reported-oral mucositis scale (PROMS) on its own and in relation to existing measures of mucositis. Methods: 50 patients with head and neck cancer receiving radiotherapy were examined before cancer treatment, twice weekly during 6-7 weeks of therapy and post-therapy. Oral mucositis (OM) signs were evaluated clinically using NCI-CTCAE v.3, OMAS criteria and Total VAS-OMAS score. OM symptoms were recorded on PROMS-VAS questionnaires. Albumin and polymorphonuclear neutrophils were measured in saline rinses. The PROMS data were subjected to Spearman rank correlations versus the other clinical and biomarker data. Results: 33 participants completed the study. Significant correlations (p<.001) were seen between PROMS scores and other clinical and biomarker indicators of OM at a group level. Significant variations were seen between individuals. Conclusion: The PROMS tool demonstrates good correlation with other clinical indicators of OM and adds novel dimensions to currently available methods of assessments used for quantification of OM.

Die Strahlenreaktion der Mundschleimhaut ist die häufigste und Dosis limitierende frühe Nebenwirkung der Radio(chemo)therapie von Kopf-Hals-Tumoren. Sie führt zu einer starken Beeinträchtigung des Allgemeinzustandes sowie der Lebensqualität der Patienten. Nicht selten muss die Strahlentherapie unterbrochen werden, wodurch sich die Tumorheilungschance deutlich reduziert. Trotz zahlreicher experimenteller und klinischer Ansätze konnte bisher kein allgemein gültiges Konzept zur Prophylaxe und Therapie der radiogenen Mucositis enoralis in der Klinik etabliert werden. Die Pathogenese der oralen Mukositis ist komplex. Sie wird durch eine Vielzahl von Faktoren beeinflusst, darunter verschiedene Signalkaskaden, wie die Rho- und Ras-vermittelte Signaltransduktion. Die vorliegende tierexperimentelle Arbeit untersuchte deshalb den Ein-fluss des 3-Hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl-CoenzymA-Reduktase-Hemmers Lovastatin, welcher unter anderem die genannten Signalkaskaden modifiziert, auf die Reaktion der Mundschleimhaut auf fraktionierte Bestrahlung. Ergänzende histologische Untersuchungen sollen weitere Anhaltspunkte auf den Wirkmechanismus von Lovastatin geben. Alle Untersuchungen erfolgten am etablierten Tiermodell der Schleimhaut der Zungenunter-seite der Maus (Inzucht-Stamm C3H/Neu). Die Bestrahlung wurde als fraktionierte, perkutane Schnauzenbestrahlung (200 kV Röntgenstrahlung) mit wöchentlich 5x3 Gy über eine (Tag 0-4) bzw. zwei Wochen (Tag 0-4 und 7-11) durchgeführt. Das Bestrahlungsfeld war dabei so definiert, dass die gesamte Schnauze bis zu einer Ebene von den Augen bis zur Kehle, und damit die gesamte Zunge, eingeschlossen wurden. Daraus resultierte zunächst nur ein subklinischer Effekt an der Mundschleimhaut. Durch die lokale Testbestrahlung (25 kV Röntgen-strahlung) eines 3x3 mm² großen Feldes auf der Zungenunterseite wurde eine klinische Reaktion indiziert. Die lokale Bestrahlung erfolgte mit jeweils 5 gestaffelten Dosisgruppen (je-weils 10 Tiere zur Generierung vollständiger Dosis-Effekt-Kurven (Logit-Analyse). Als quantaler Endpunkt diente das Auftreten einer Ulzeration, entsprechend einer konfluenten Mukositis Grad 3 nach RTOG/EORTC-Klasifikation. Die Latenzzeit zwischen lokaler Bestrahlung und Diagnosestellung und die Dauer der Ulzeration bis zur Reepithelialisierung beschreiben den zeitlichen Verlauf der Veränderungen. Der Beschreibung des Dosiseffektes dienten die ED50-Werte (Dosis, bei der bei 50 % der Tiere eine Ulzeration innerhalb des Testfeldes zu erwarten ist) und deren Standardabweichung σ bzw. deren 95 %-Vertrauensbereiche. Für histologische Untersuchungen wurden an 16 aufeinander folgenden Tagen jeweils 3 Tiere einer Versuchsgruppe getötet. Als Kontrolle dienten 3 unbehandelte Tiere. Die Zungen wurden entnommen und mit Hämatoxylin und Eosin gefärbte Schnitte angefertigt. Anschließend erfolgte die lichtmikroskopische Auswertung von mindestens 2 mm Epithellänge pro Präparat, wobei die Zahl der kernhaltigen Zellen in der Funktions- und Germinativschicht sowie die Dicken der Germinativ-, Funktions- und Keratinschicht bestimmt wurden. Lovastatin (1A Pharma, Oberhaching) wurde in einer Dosierung von 16 mg/kg, entsprechend der empfohlenen Dosis beim Menschen, appliziert. Die Gabe des in destillierten Wasser suspendierten Medikamentes, erfolgte täglich per os über eine Schlundsonde. Bei fraktionierter Bestrahlung über 1 Woche erhielten die Versuchstiere Lovastatin von Tag -3 (bezogen auf den Tag der ersten Fraktion) bis Tag +7 oder bis zur Ausheilung der Ulzerationen. Bei fraktionierter Bestrahlung über 2 Wochen wurden 4 Behandlungszeiträume von Lovastatin getestet: Tag -3 bis +4, Tag +7 bis +14, Tag 0 bis +14 oder Tag 0 bis zur Heilung der Ulzeration. Für die histologischen Untersuchungen erfolgte eine fraktionierte Bestrahlung mit 10x3 Gy über 2 Wochen. An den Tagen 0-14 bzw. 7-14 wurde Lovastatin verabreicht. Als Kontrolle dienten die Versuchsgruppen, welche eine alleinige Bestrahlung bzw. Lovastatingabe erhielten. Zur Testung der Verträglichkeit des Medikamentes erhielten zunächst 5 Versuchstiere einmal täglich 16 mg/kg Lovastatin über einen Zeitraum von 25 Tagen. Dabei konnten keine wesentlichen unerwünschten Arzneimittelwirkungen beobachtet werden. Die alleinige Einzeitbestrahlung ergab einen ED50-Wert von 11,5±1,0 Gy mit einer signifikan-ten Dosisabhängigkeit der Ulkusfrequenz (p=0,0007). Die Latenzzeit war 12,2±0,5 Tage, die Ulkusdauer 3,1±0,6 Tage. Der ED50-Wert für die alleinige fraktionierte Bestrahlung über 1 Woche war 8,6±1,4 Gy (p=0,0002). Es wurden für die Latenzzeit 9,7±0,8 Tage und für die Ulkusdauer 5,4±1,1 Tage bestimmt. In beiden Versuchsprotokollen mit Lovastatingabe und fraktionierter Bestrahlung über eine Woche konnte eine signifikante Erhöhung der ED50-Werte gegenüber der alleinigen Fraktionierung festgestellt werden. Bei Medikamentengabe von Tag -3 bis +7 war die ED50 10,1±0,1 Gy, von Tag -3 bis zur Ausheilung 11,6±0,7 Gy. Die mittleren Latenzzeiten waren gegenüber der Kontrolle nicht signifikant verändert, es konnte jedoch in beiden Versuchsarmen eine Verkürzung der mittleren Ulkusdauer um ca. 2 Tage festgestellt werden. Für die Testbestrahlung nach alleiniger fraktionierter Bestrahlung über 2 Wochen ergab sich ein ED50-Wert von 7,9±1,3 Gy (p=0,0002). Für die Latenzzeit wurden 11,8±0,8 Tage und für die Ulkusdauer 4,5±1,0 Tage ermittelt. Die Gabe von Lovastatin führte in allen Behandlungs-protokollen zu einer signifikanten Erhöhung der ED50-Werte: Tag -3 bis +4: 12,7±0,9 Gy; Tag +7 bis +14: 11,6±0,9 Gy; Tag 0 bis 14: 14,3±1,2 Gy, Tag 0 bis Ausheilung der Ulzeration: 12,9±1,3 Gy. Ebenso wie bei fraktionierter Bestrahlung über eine Woche, konnte eine Verkürzung der Ulkusdauer um ca. 2 Tage festgestellt werden. Außerdem wurde eine Verkürzung der mittleren Latenzzeit von 2,4 Tagen (Medikamentengabe von Tag -3 bis +4) bis 4,1 Tagen (Tag 0 bis zur Ausheilung) gefunden. Bei fraktionierter Bestrahlung über 2 Wochen konnte für den gesamten Behandlungszeitraum eine gegenüber der unbehandelten Kontrolle reduzierte Gesamtzellzahl (Minimalwert Tag 4: 51%) festgestellt werden. Erst am Tag 16 wurde der Ausgangswert wieder erreicht. Demgegenüber ergab die alleinige Applikation von Lovastatin von Tag 0 bis 14 im Vergleich zur unbehandelten Kontrolle signifikant höhere Gesamtzellzahlen (Maximalwert Tag 9: 144% des Ausgangswertes). Bei fraktionierter Bestrahlung und Lovastatingabe konnten gegenüber der Kontrolle reduzierte, jedoch höhere Gesamtzellzahlen als bei alleiniger Fraktionierung festgestellt werden. Die Gesamtschichtdicken aller 4 Behandlungsprotokolle ergaben ähnliche Verläufe ohne signifikante Unterschiede. Zusammenfassend kann festgestellt werden, dass die Applikation von Lovastatin während fraktionierter Bestrahlung einen mukoprotektiven Effekt aufweist. In allen Behandlungsprotokollen war eine signifikante Erhöhung der isoeffektiven Dosen festgestellt werden. Dabei scheint der mukoprotektive Effekt umso größer zu sein, je länger die Behandlung mit Lovastatin andauerte. Lovastatin führte zu einer eindeutigen Akumulation der epithelialen Zellproliferation. Die exakten Wirkmechanismen der Mukoprotektion durch Statine sind jedoch bisher nicht geklärt und bedürfen weitergehender Untersuchungen. / The radiation response of oral mucosa is a frequent and dose-limiting side effect of radio(chemo)therapy of tumours in the head-and-neck region. Oral mucositis substantially im-pacts on the general condition and the quality of life of the patients. It necessitates treatment interruptions in a number of patients, with the consequence of a marked reduction of the tumour cure probability. Despite various experimental and clinical approaches, no general strategy for the prophylaxis or management of radiation-induced oral mucositis has so far been established in clinical routine. The pathogenesis of oral mucositis is complex and is influenced by a variety of factors, including miscellaneous signalling cascades, such as rho- and ras-dependent signal transduction. The present preclinical study in experimental animals was hence initiated to characterize the effect of the 3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl-CoenzymeA-reductase inhibitor Lovastatin, which modulates the latter signalling chains, on the response of oral mucosa to fractionated irradiation. Accompanying histological studies were performed to illuminate the mechanism of action of Lovastatin. All investigations were performed in the mucosa of the lower surface of mouse tongue (C3H/Neu inbred strain) as an established animal model. Irradiation was administered as fractionated, percutaneous treatment of the entire snout of the animals (200 kV X-rays). The protocols comprised the application of 5x3 Gy/week over 1 week (days 0-4) or 2 weeks (days 0-4, 7-11). The treatment volume encompassed the snout of the animals to a plane from the eyes to the throat, thus including the entire tongue. With snout irradiation, only a subclinical mucosal effect was induced. Subsequent local test irradiation (25 kV X-rays) yielded a clinically manifest reaction within a 3x3 mm2 test area at the lower tongue surface. Local irradiation was performed in 5 graded dose groups with 10 animals each, in order to generate complete doseeffect curves (logit analyses). For this, mucosal ulceration, corresponding to confluent mucositis grade 3 according to the RTOG/EORTC classification, was analyzed as the quantal endpoint. The latent time between test irradiation and first ulcer diagnosis and the ulcer duration until reepithelialisation served as parameters of the time course of the radiation response. The dose effect was described by ED50 values (dose at which an ulceration within the test area is expected in 50 % of the animals) and their standard deviation  or their 95 % confidence intervals. For histological studies, 3 mice of each experimental group (see below) were sacrificed per day over a period of 16 days. Three untreated mice served as controls. The tongues were excised and the sections stained with haematoxylin and eosin. At least 2 mm epithelial length were examined by standard light microscopy, and the number of nucleated cells in the functional and germinal layers as well as the thickness of the individual epithelial layers was quantified. Lovastatin (1A Pharma, Oberhaching, Germany) was administered at a dose of 16 mg/kg, according to the recommended dose in patients. The drug was suspended in A. dest. and applied daily per os via gavage. With fractionated irradiation over 1 week, Lovastatin was administered from day -3 (before the first fraction) until day 7 or until clinical healing of all reactions. Fractionated irradiation over 2 weeks was combined with Lovastatin in 4 admini-stration intervals: day -3 to +4, day +7 to +11, day 0 to +14 or day 0 until clinical healing of all ulcerations. For the histological investigations, irradiation was applied with 10x3 Gy over 2 weeks. Lovastatin was administered on days 0-14 or 7-14, respectively. Groups that received either radiation alone or Lovastatin alone in similar protocols served as controls. To test for tolerability of the drug, 5 animals were treated daily with 16 mg/kg Lovastatin over 25 days. No adverse events were observed. Single dose irradiation alone resulted in an ED50 value of 11.5±1.0 Gy, with a significant dose dependence of ulcer frequency (p=0.0007). The latent time was 12.2±0.5 d, ulcer duration 3.1±0.6 d. The ED50 value for test irradiation after fractionated irradiation over 1 week was 8.6±1.4 Gy (p=0.0002). Latent time was 9.7±0.8 d, ulcer duration 5.4±1.1d. In both protocols with Lovas-tatin, a significant increase of the ED50 values was observed, with 10.1±0.1 Gy and 11.6±0.7 Gy for drug administration from day -3 to +7 and day -3 to ulcer healing, respectively. The mean latencies were not significantly different from the control. However, mean ulcer duration was shortened by ca. 2 d. For test irradiation after 2 weeks of fractionation alone, the ED50 was 7.9±1.3 Gy (p=0.0002). Mean latency was 11.8±0.8 d, mean ulcer duration 4.5±1.0 d. Lovastatin administration yielded a significant increase in ED50 values in all experimental protocols, with 12.7±0.9 Gy for day -3 to +4, 11.6±0.9 Gy for day +7 to +14, 14.3±1.2 Gy for day 0 to +14 and 12.9±1.3 Gy for day 0 until healing. Similar to one week of fractionation, a shortening of ulcer duration by ca. 2 d was found. Mean latencies were reduced by 2.4 days (drug administration day -3 to +4) to 4.1 days (day 0 to healing). Epithelial cell numbers were clearly reduced by fractionated irradiation (minimum day 4: 51 % of the control). Original values were not observed before day 16. In contrast, administration of Lovastatin alone significantly increased the total cell numbers in the epithelium (maximum day 9: 144 % of control). The combination of irradiation and Lovastatin resulted in total cell numbers that were reduced compared to the control, but markedly higher than with irradiation alone. No differences were found for epithelial thickness in comparison to irradiation alone. In conclusion, the administration of Lovastatin during fractionated irradiation showed a substantial mucoprotective effect. Isoeffective doses were significantly increased in all Lovastatin treatment arms. The longer the interval of drug administration was, the more pronounced was the effect. Lovastatin yielded a clear stimulation of epithelial cell proliferation. The detailed mechanisms of action of Lovastatin, however, remain unclear and require further investigation.

Die orale Mukositis ist eine der häufigsten und schwerwiegendsten frühen Nebenwirkungen nach einer Ganzkörperbestrahlung im Rahmen der Therapie hämatologischer Tumoren sowie nach einer Strahlenexposition im Kopf-Hals-Bereich. Es existieren zahlreiche experimentelle und klinische Ansätze zur Prophylaxe und Therapie dieser Strahlenfolge, aus denen jedoch bisher kein allgemein anwendbares Behandlungsschema ableitbar ist. Für Keratinozyten-Wachstumsfaktor (KGF) werden in präklinischen und klinischen Untersuchungen mukoprotektive Effekte nachgewiesen. Er ist als rekombinante humane Form (∆23-rHuKGF) mit der Wirkstoffbezeichnung Palifermin unter dem Markennamen Kepivance® für die Anwendung beim Menschen zur Prophylaxe der oralen Mukositis im Rahmen der Konditionierungsbehandlung bei Knochenmarktransplantationen zugelassen. Die Applikation von Palifermin erfolgt dabei intravenös in einer Dosierung von 60 g/kg an drei aufeinander folgenden Tagen vor und nach der Konditionierungstherapie. Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit ist es, zu prüfen, ob eine Reduktion der Anzahl der Palifermin-Applikationen vor und/oder nach der Konditionierungstherapie möglich ist. Zusätzlich sollen histologische Untersuchungen Hinweise zum Mechanismus der Paliferminwirkung geben. Die Untersuchungen erfolgen am etablierten Modell des Epithels der Zungenunterseite von C3H/Neu-Mäusen. Eine Einzeitbestrahlung der Zunge simuliert die Konditionierungsbehandlung. Gestaffelte Strahlendosen werden zur Auslösung einer Ulzeration verwendet, um komplette Dosis-Effekt-Kurven zu generieren. Primärer Endpunkt ist die Induktion einer ulzerativen Mukositis in Abhängigkeit von der Strahlendosis. Latenzzeit und Ulkusdauer beschreiben den zeitlichen Verlauf der Veränderungen. Die beim Menschen zugelassene Anwendung von Palifermin wird auf das Mausmodell übertragen (Standardanwendung), wobei Palifermin in einer Dosierung von 5 mg/kg an drei aufeinander folgenden Tagen vor und nach der Einzeitbestrahlung (Tag -3,-2,-1,+1,+2,+3) subkutan appliziert wird. Die Palifermin-Applikation wird vor der Bestrahlung auf zwei Gaben (Tag -3,-2,+1,+2+3, Tag -2,-1,+1,+2,+3) bzw. eine Gabe (Tag -3,+1,+2,+3, Tag -2,+1,+2,+3, Tag -1,+1,+2,+3) oder nach der Bestrahlung auf zwei (Tag – 3,-2,-1,+1,+2, Tag -3,-2,-1,+2,+3) bzw. eine Applikation (Tag -3,-2,-1,+1, Tag -3,-2,-1,+2, Tag -3,-2,-1,+3) reduziert. Die Palifermin-Dosierung beträgt bei mehr als einer Applikation 5 mg/kg s.c. täglich, bei einer einmaligen Anwendung 15 mg/kg s.c.. Histologische Untersuchungen der Mukosa erfolgen bei Standardanwendung von Palifermin sowie bei Applikation nur an drei Tagen vor oder nach der Einzeitbestrahlung. Nach alleiniger Einzeitbestrahlung treten ulzerative Läsionen mit einer ED50 von 11,0  1,3 Gy (Dosis, bei der bei 50 % der Tiere eine ulzerative Läsion im Zungenepithel erwartet wird) nach durchschnittlich 10,0  0,7 Tagen (Latenzzeit) für 3,4  1,0 Tage (Ulkusdauer) auf. Erhalten die Mäuse Palifermin im Standardprotokoll, so ist die Strahlentoleranz des Zungenepithels im Vergleich zur alleinigen Bestrahlung erhöht (ED50=21,9  2,2 Gy, DMF=2,0). Eine signifikant stärkere Wirkung wird erzielt, wenn Palifermin nach der Einzeitbestrahlung nur ein- oder zweimal appliziert (ED50=31,5  5,1 Gy und 28,9  3,8 Gy) oder wenn vor und nach der Einzeitbestrahlung der Wirkstoff nur einmal verabreicht wird (ED50=31,1  3,8 Gy). Die ulzerativen Reaktionen treten dabei später auf und sind von kürzerer Dauer, insbesondere wenn die Palifermin-Gabe unmittelbar nach der Einzeitbestrahlung erfolgt. Die Reduktion der Palifermin-Anwendung vor der Einzeitbestrahlung auf eine oder zwei Applikationen ist in ihrer Wirkung mit der Standardanwendung vergleichbar. Nach einer alleinigen Einzeitbestrahlung mit 13 Gy verringern sich Zellzahl (Minimalwert Tag 6 - 8, 73-74 %) und Dicke (Minimalwert Tag 4, 72 %) des Epithels, das Zellvolumen nimmt zu (Maximalwert Tag 8, 239 %). Palifermin erhöht nach dreitägiger Applikation vor der Bestrahlung die Zellzahl (184 %), die Epitheldicke (215 %) und vergrößert das Zellvolumen (152 %). Wird Palifermin zusätzlich an drei Tagen nach der Bestrahlung appliziert (Standardanwendung), erfolgt die Abnahme der epithelialen Zelldichte verzögert (Minimalwert Tag 7, 36 %). Die Epitheldicke nimmt bis Tag 3 weiter zu (286 %). Die vorliegenden Untersuchungen am Modell der Zungenseite der Maus zeigen, dass die mukoprotektive Wirkung von Palifermin im Vergleich zu klinisch üblichen Standardanwendung erhöht werden kann, wenn der Wirkstoff vor und nach der Bestrahlung nur einmal gegeben wird oder die Applikationen nach der Bestrahlung reduziert werden.

Bei der Strahlentherapie fortgeschrittener Tumoren im Kopf-Hals-Bereich gilt die radiogene Mucositis enoralis als schwerwiegende und dosislimitierende frühe Nebenwirkung. Sehr häufig führt sie zu einer Unterbrechung der Behandlung, mit der Folge einer Reduktion der Tumorheilungschancen. Während einer fraktionierten Strahlenexposition kommt es in der Mundschleimhaut zu einer erhöhten Expression des Epidermalen Wachstumsfaktors (Epidermal Growth Factor, EGF) und dessen Rezeptors (EGFR). Durch eine Blockade des EGFR, als anerkannte Strategie zur Verbesserung der Tumorheilung, besteht deshalb die Gefahr, dass es zu einer Verschlimmerung der Schleimhaut-Nebenwirkungen kommt. Der Einsatz von Keratinozyten-Wachstumsfaktor (KGF) zeigt positive Ergebnisse bezüglich einer Reduktion der Schleimhautveränderungen. In dieser Arbeit wird deshalb im Tiermodell einerseits die Auswirkung einer Blockade des EGFR auf die Schleimhautreaktion, und andererseits eine mögliche Interaktion der Blockade mit der schleimhautschützenden Wirkung von KGF untersucht. Insgesamt kann keine signifikante Veränderung der Schleimhauttoleranz durch die EGFR-Inhibition mittels BIBX1382BF innerhalb der ersten beiden Wochen einer fraktionierten Bestrahlung festgestellt werden; lediglich das Auftreten ulzerativer Läsionen nach der zweiten Woche ist vorverlagert

The aim of this thesis was to investigate oral cryotherapy (OC) as prophy-laxis against oral mucositis (OM) in patients given high-dose chemotherapy for stem cell transplantation (SCT). A new mouth rinse device was tested for possible additive effect to OC. For study I-III, 78 patients were randomised to OC or standard oral care (SOC). Papers I and II showed that OC patients had significantly less severe mucositis, pain, opioid use, lower C-reactive protein and less parenteral nutrition treatment (TPN). There was no difference in relapse rate, and 5-year survival was unexpectedly significantly better in the OC group (Paper III). In paper IV, the local effect of OC on the mucosa of the mouth was investigated by the use of an infrared thermograph. Change in surface temperature in eight areas of the mouth cavity was measured after cooling of the mouth in healthy volunteers. A substantial lowering of the temperature (-12.9 °C, mean) was seen which could explain the efficacy of OC. To exclude that acute cooling in itself is traumatic, the proinflammatory cytokine IL-6 was measured in saliva and showed no increase after cooling. Paper V reported a study in 40 allogeneic SCT patients. 20 were given SOC including OC and 20 in addition received Caphosol®, a calcium phosphate mouth rinse, during chemotherapy and until day 21. Severity of mucositis, use of opioids and TPN, effects on nutrition and CRP levels were measured. No significant difference was found between the groups in any of these variables, but a non-significant trend for an advantage for the combination could be seen. IL-6 saliva levels were measured. There was a substantial increase (more than 10-fold), in mean IL-6 levels from baseline to beginning of mucositis and a weak correlation between increased IL-6 levels and severity of OM, suggesting that IL-6 in saliva may be a useful marker of the inflammatory mucosal process. This thesis demonstrates that OC is effective as prophylaxis against chemotherapy-induced OM. As a consequence of this work, OC has been introduced as the standard of care in all SCT patients in our institution.

Mucositis manifesting as diarrhoea is a common side effect of chemotherapy which remains poorly understood. It is one of a number of manifestations of alimentary mucositis, which affects the entire gastrointestinal tract. The exact number of patients that are affected by diarrhoea as a result of treatment is uncertain, although it is believed that approximately 10% of patients with advanced cancer will be afflicted. Despite advances in the understanding of oral and small intestinal mucositis over recent years, large intestinal mucositis, including diarrhoea, has not been well defined and the underlying mechanisms of the condition are yet to be established. The majority of the literature available concerning diarrhoea is based on clinical observations, with very little basic research existing. However, from the research conducted, it is likely that the intestinal microflora and mucins play a role in the development of chemotherapy-induced diarrhoea. This thesis will examine in detail what is known about the mechanisms of chemotherapy-induced diarrhoea (CID). Furthermore it will explore the potentially important relationship between intestinal microflora, the luminal environment and the subsequent development of chemotherapy-induced mucositis and diarrhoea. 5-Fluorouracil (5-FU) is a commonly used chemotherapy agent in clinical oncology practice. Two of its major side effects are mucositis and diarrhoea. The structure of mucins offers mucosal protection, and allows maintenance of intestinal flora by providing attachment sites and preventing bacterial overgrowth and/or penetration. Following treatment with 5-FU, we showed decreases in Clostridium spp., Lactobacillus spp. and Streptococcus spp., and an increase in Escherichia spp. in the jejunum. In the colon, 5-FU caused decreases in Enterococcus spp., Lactobacillus spp. and Streptococcus spp. Real time PCR of faecal samples showed decreasing trends in Lactobacillus spp. and Bacteroides spp., and an increasing trend in E. coli. Significant increases (p<0.05) were seen in Clostridium spp. and Staphylococcus spp. at 24 h. Goblet cell numbers decreased significantly in the jejunum from 24-72 h, with a significant increase in the percentage of cavitated goblet cells, suggesting 5-FU treatment causes significant changes in intestinal flora and mucin secretion in rats. These changes could result in systemic effects, and in particular may contribute to the development of chemotherapy-induced mucositis. Irinotecan causes cholinergic and delayed onset diarrhoea in patients, in which β-glucuronidase produced by gut bacteria is thought to be involved. Diarrhoea was observed in treated rats, as expected, following irinotecan treatment. β-glucuronidase expression increased in the jejunum and colon. Faecal flora changed quantitatively after treatment also, with increases in E. coli, Staphylococcus spp., and Clostridium spp. (all β-glucuronidase producing), and decreases in Lactobacillus spp., Bifidobacterium spp. (both beneficial bacteria), and Bacteroides spp. (β-glucuronidase producing, major component of intestinal flora), suggesting that irinotecan-induced diarrhoea may be caused by an increase in β-glucuronidase producing bacteria. However, the increase in bacteria may also be caused by irinotecan, further exaggerating the toxicity of the drug, and emphasising the need for these specific bacteria to be therapeutically targeted for successful treatment regimens to be accomplished. Mucus production appears to be increased after irinotecan treatment, which may contribute to the development of diarrhoea. Goblet cells were demonstrated to decrease significantly after irinotecan treatment. However, mucin secretion increased. Mucin expression changed significantly after treatment. Muc2 and Muc4 decreased significantly in the villi of the jejunum after treatment, Muc2 and Muc4 decreased significantly in the crypts. Muc2 decreased significantly in the colon. This indicates that irinotecan causes an increase in mucin secretion and a net decrease in mucin-producing goblet cells, and the expression of Muc2 and Muc4 in the gastrointestinal tract is altered following treatment. Increased mucin secretion is likely to be related to altered mucin expression, and may contribute to chemotherapy-induced diarrhoea. To determine if the changes to the intestinal microflora caused by chemotherapy could be translated to the clinic, a pilot clinical study was carried out. Sixteen patients experiencing CID were recruited to the study with two control subjects. A large proportion of patients (75%) demonstrated a reduced anaerobic component of their faecal microflora. A reduced diversity of species was also observed in patients. The majority of patients exhibited decreases in Clostridium spp., Lactobacillus spp. and Bifidobacterium spp., whilst all patients exhibited decreases in Bacteroides spp. and Enterococcus spp. Patients receiving antibiotics did not exhibit any marked differences to patients not receiving antibiotics. This indicates that the results observed in the animal studies are clinically relevant, and further research into this area should be undertaken. CID is associated with marked changes in the intestinal microflora. These changes may result in diminished bacterial functions within the gut, altering gut function and initiating intestinal damage, resulting in the onset of diarrhoea. In conclusion, there is clear evidence demonstrating chemotherapy treatment results in changes to the intestinal microflora and mucin secretion, which may be responsible in part for the development of severe mucositis and diarrhoea. Irinotecan toxicity may be compounded by the increase in β-glucuronidase producing bacteria. The intestinal flora of cancer patients experiencing CID is also noticeably different to that of healthy subjects. Irinotecan causes changes to mucin secretion, and the specific expression of Muc2, Muc4 and Klf4, suggesting that secretory control by the enteric nervous system may also be affected by chemotherapy. This research has extended the understanding of chemotherapy-induced mucositis and diarrhoea, complex side effects of chemotherapy. However, new areas for future research have also been identified. / http://proxy.library.adelaide.edu.au/login?url= http://library.adelaide.edu.au/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=1352119 / Thesis (Ph.D.) - University of Adelaide, School of Medicine, 2009

Mucositis manifesting as diarrhoea is a common side effect of chemotherapy which remains poorly understood. It is one of a number of manifestations of alimentary mucositis, which affects the entire gastrointestinal tract. The exact number of patients that are affected by diarrhoea as a result of treatment is uncertain, although it is believed that approximately 10% of patients with advanced cancer will be afflicted. Despite advances in the understanding of oral and small intestinal mucositis over recent years, large intestinal mucositis, including diarrhoea, has not been well defined and the underlying mechanisms of the condition are yet to be established. The majority of the literature available concerning diarrhoea is based on clinical observations, with very little basic research existing. However, from the research conducted, it is likely that the intestinal microflora and mucins play a role in the development of chemotherapy-induced diarrhoea. This thesis will examine in detail what is known about the mechanisms of chemotherapy-induced diarrhoea (CID). Furthermore it will explore the potentially important relationship between intestinal microflora, the luminal environment and the subsequent development of chemotherapy-induced mucositis and diarrhoea. 5-Fluorouracil (5-FU) is a commonly used chemotherapy agent in clinical oncology practice. Two of its major side effects are mucositis and diarrhoea. The structure of mucins offers mucosal protection, and allows maintenance of intestinal flora by providing attachment sites and preventing bacterial overgrowth and/or penetration. Following treatment with 5-FU, we showed decreases in Clostridium spp., Lactobacillus spp. and Streptococcus spp., and an increase in Escherichia spp. in the jejunum. In the colon, 5-FU caused decreases in Enterococcus spp., Lactobacillus spp. and Streptococcus spp. Real time PCR of faecal samples showed decreasing trends in Lactobacillus spp. and Bacteroides spp., and an increasing trend in E. coli. Significant increases (p<0.05) were seen in Clostridium spp. and Staphylococcus spp. at 24 h. Goblet cell numbers decreased significantly in the jejunum from 24-72 h, with a significant increase in the percentage of cavitated goblet cells, suggesting 5-FU treatment causes significant changes in intestinal flora and mucin secretion in rats. These changes could result in systemic effects, and in particular may contribute to the development of chemotherapy-induced mucositis. Irinotecan causes cholinergic and delayed onset diarrhoea in patients, in which β-glucuronidase produced by gut bacteria is thought to be involved. Diarrhoea was observed in treated rats, as expected, following irinotecan treatment. β-glucuronidase expression increased in the jejunum and colon. Faecal flora changed quantitatively after treatment also, with increases in E. coli, Staphylococcus spp., and Clostridium spp. (all β-glucuronidase producing), and decreases in Lactobacillus spp., Bifidobacterium spp. (both beneficial bacteria), and Bacteroides spp. (β-glucuronidase producing, major component of intestinal flora), suggesting that irinotecan-induced diarrhoea may be caused by an increase in β-glucuronidase producing bacteria. However, the increase in bacteria may also be caused by irinotecan, further exaggerating the toxicity of the drug, and emphasising the need for these specific bacteria to be therapeutically targeted for successful treatment regimens to be accomplished. Mucus production appears to be increased after irinotecan treatment, which may contribute to the development of diarrhoea. Goblet cells were demonstrated to decrease significantly after irinotecan treatment. However, mucin secretion increased. Mucin expression changed significantly after treatment. Muc2 and Muc4 decreased significantly in the villi of the jejunum after treatment, Muc2 and Muc4 decreased significantly in the crypts. Muc2 decreased significantly in the colon. This indicates that irinotecan causes an increase in mucin secretion and a net decrease in mucin-producing goblet cells, and the expression of Muc2 and Muc4 in the gastrointestinal tract is altered following treatment. Increased mucin secretion is likely to be related to altered mucin expression, and may contribute to chemotherapy-induced diarrhoea. To determine if the changes to the intestinal microflora caused by chemotherapy could be translated to the clinic, a pilot clinical study was carried out. Sixteen patients experiencing CID were recruited to the study with two control subjects. A large proportion of patients (75%) demonstrated a reduced anaerobic component of their faecal microflora. A reduced diversity of species was also observed in patients. The majority of patients exhibited decreases in Clostridium spp., Lactobacillus spp. and Bifidobacterium spp., whilst all patients exhibited decreases in Bacteroides spp. and Enterococcus spp. Patients receiving antibiotics did not exhibit any marked differences to patients not receiving antibiotics. This indicates that the results observed in the animal studies are clinically relevant, and further research into this area should be undertaken. CID is associated with marked changes in the intestinal microflora. These changes may result in diminished bacterial functions within the gut, altering gut function and initiating intestinal damage, resulting in the onset of diarrhoea. In conclusion, there is clear evidence demonstrating chemotherapy treatment results in changes to the intestinal microflora and mucin secretion, which may be responsible in part for the development of severe mucositis and diarrhoea. Irinotecan toxicity may be compounded by the increase in β-glucuronidase producing bacteria. The intestinal flora of cancer patients experiencing CID is also noticeably different to that of healthy subjects. Irinotecan causes changes to mucin secretion, and the specific expression of Muc2, Muc4 and Klf4, suggesting that secretory control by the enteric nervous system may also be affected by chemotherapy. This research has extended the understanding of chemotherapy-induced mucositis and diarrhoea, complex side effects of chemotherapy. However, new areas for future research have also been identified. / http://proxy.library.adelaide.edu.au/login?url= http://library.adelaide.edu.au/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=1352119 / Thesis (Ph.D.) - University of Adelaide, School of Medicine, 2009