No description available.

Methyl-CpG-binding protein 2 (MeCP2 is) is an epigenetic regulator that binds to methylated DNA. Initially identified as transcriptional repressor, MeCP2 also binds to different proteins functioning as gene activator. Importantly, MecCP2 gene mutations and changes in MeCP2 levels are associated to several forms of mental retardation and autism-related disorders; including Rett, a neurodevelopmental disorder affecting primarily girls. While brain MeCP2 was considered to be exclusively neuronal, this regulator is also present in glia. We found that oligodendrocytes, the myelinating cells of the central nervous system (CNS), express particularly high MeCP2 levels at a developmental stage that precedes their final maturation. Moreover, downregulation of MeCP2 levels by treatment of immature oligodendrocytes with small interference RNA (siRNA), reduced the expression of 14 kDa myelin basic protein (MBP) and MOG, two markers of mature oligodendrocytes. These observations raise the possibility that oligodendrocytes have a direct participation in Rett syndrome and other autism-related disorders.

While the classical function of myelin is to facilitate saltatory conduction, this membrane and the myelin-making oligodendrocytes (OLGs) are now recognized as regulators of plasticity and remodeling in the central nervous system (CNS). Thus, OLG maturation and myelination are highly vulnerable processes along CNS development. We previously showed that rat brain myelination is altered by perinatal exposure to buprenorphine, an opioid analogue in clinical trials for the treatment of pregnant opioid addicts. We now found that the in vivo effects on myelination could result from direct alteration in the balance between μ-opioid receptor (MOR) and nociceptin/orphanin FQ receptor (NOPR) activities in the OLGs. Furthermore, we found that myelination could also be affected by the FDA-approved methadone. A delicate balance between MOR and NOPR signaling may play a crucial role timing OLG maturation and myelin formation and exogenous opioids may disrupt this interplay, altering the developmental pattern of brain myelination.

La réparation nerveuse périphérique constitue un véritable défi pour le chirurgien. En effet, les lésions nerveuses sont fréquentes et graves, avec une récupération fonctionnelle incomplète et un coût induit au niveau professionnel. Malgré des progrès dans le délai de prise en charge et dans la qualité du geste technique chirurgical, les résultats ne se sont pas améliorés depuis une vingtaine d’années. Devant ces limites du traitement chirurgical, une approche biologique s’est progressivement imposée avec la recherche de molécules neurotrophiques capables d’améliorer la croissance axonale et de limiter la perte neuronale.Initialement, nous nous sommes intéressés au FK506 (Tacrolimus), qui est un immunosuppresseur dont les propriétés neurotrophiques ont été décrites au niveau du système nerveux périphérique, avec l’objectif de réaliser un essai clinique. Cependant cette molécule présente de nombreux effets secondaires dont la balance bénéfice/risque est discutable dans cette indication. Par conséquent notre intérêt s’est porté sur la vitamine D dont les propriétés neuroprotectrices ont largement été étudiées au niveau du système nerveux central.Au cours de cette thèse, nous avons eu pour objectifs: 1. d’évaluer le potentiel thérapeutique de la Vitamine D dans la repousse nerveuse périphérique au travers d’une étude comparative avec le FK506 ;2. de déterminer la molécule de calciférol la plus efficace - ergocalciférol (vitamine D2) versus cholécalciférol (vitamine D3) - et la posologie optimale ;3. d’analyser les mécanismes moléculaires d’action de la vitamine D au niveau des cellules de Schwann et des motoneurones.Dans notre première étude (Chabas et al, 2008), nous avons confirmé que le FK506 favorisait une récupération fonctionnelle précoce et améliorait la récupération de la métabosensibilité. Par ailleurs, dans notre deuxième étude (Chabas et al, 2009), nous avons montré, pour la première fois, les effets neurotrophiques de la vitamine D2 dans la repousse nerveuse périphérique. De même, au travers d’une étude pharmacologique, nous avons mis en évidence que la vitamine D3 à la posologie de 500 UI/Kg/jour constituait la molécule et la posologie les plus efficaces dans la régénération nerveuse périphérique. Enfin, l’étude transcriptionnelle des mécanismes moléculaires retrouve une régulation des gènes intervenant dans l’axogénèse et la myélinisation.Tous ces résultats nous confortent dans notre volonté de réaliser un essai clinique randomisé, en double aveugle, avec bénéfice individuel direct, utilisant la vitamine D3 (Uvedose®) dans les plaies nerveuses du membre supérieur. / Nerve repair remains a challenge for surgeons who have to face unpredictable and very often disappointing outcomes. These suboptimal results have prompted researches on molecules that support cell survival and stimulate axonal outgrowth.For this research project, we chose to compare two AFSSAPS-approved compounds which display a have well documented immunomodulatory role and are suspected to act, within the nervous system, as neuroprotective and neuroregenerative molecules. On the one hand, we elected FK506 (Tacrolimus) that promotes nerve regeneration in addition to its immunosuppressant properties. However this molecule may induce critical side effects. On the other hand, we opted for vitamin D whose neuroprotective and neurotrophic actions are increasingly recognized.The aims of the research project were to:1. assess the potential therapeutic benefit of vitamin D on peripheral nerve regeneration and compare its efficiency to FK506;2. compare the efficiency of two doses (100 and 500 IU/kg/d) of the two main forms of vitamin D: vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol) and vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol);3. get an insight on the molecular mechanisms underlying the role of vitamin D3.In a first study (Chabas et al, 2009), we observed that FK506 significantly increased the diameter of regenerated axons in the distal portion of the graft and potentiates metabosensitive nerve fiber regeneration.In a second study (Chabas et al, 2008), we observed that vitamin D2 potentiates axon regeneration in the peripheral nervous system.In a third study, we observed that vitamin D3 is more efficient than vitamin D2 and, when delivered at high dose (500 IU/kg/day), cholecalciferol induces a dramatic locomotor and electrophysiological recovery and increases the number of preserved or newly formed axons in the proximal end and neurite myelination in both the distal and proximal ends. Using cDNA microarrays, we also performed an in vitro study on vitamin D-treated Schwann cells or dorsal root ganglia and observed that vitamin D3 triggers the expression of several genes involved in axogenesis and myelination.Altogether, these data indicate that vitamin D3 is a potent neurotrophic and myelinating agent that can be tested in phase I clinical trials for nerve repair.

Les cellules de Schwann (CS) sont les cellules gliales myélinisantes du Système Nerveux Périphérique (SNP). Il existe une communication étroite entre ces cellules et les axones auxquels elles s’associent et ce dès les stades les plus précoces de leur développement. Elles migrent tout en se divisant le long des axones; cette division migratoire est suivie d’une deuxième division post-migratoire dans le but d’établir un ratio 1:1 avec les axones pour ensuite les myéliniser. Ce travail vise à analyser, in vivo, le comportement des CS chez le poisson zèbre au cours de leurs divisions.Nous avons remarqué que les CS se divisent parallèlement aux axones le long du nerf de la Ligne Latérale Postérieure (PLL). En analysant les deux mutants has et nok, nous avons montré que les gènes de polarité apicale aPKC et pals1 ne sont pas requis pour la migration et la division des CS, ni pour leur capacité à myéliniser. Nous avons mis en évidence, en analysant le mutant cassiopeia qui présente des défauts d’organisation du fuseau mitotique et en utilisant l’agent pharmacologique le nocodazole, que l’assemblage du fuseau mitotique au cours de la division des CS est essentiel pour la myélinisation.En parallèle, nous avons analysé le rôle du gène rgs4 (regulator of G-protein Signaling 4) dans le développement du SNP chez le poisson zèbre. Nous avons généré un mutant stable rgs4 par la technique CRISPR/Cas9 et montré un rôle de ce gène dans le développement du ganglion de la PLL et des motoneurones, et ce en agissant en amont de la voie PI3K/Akt/mTOR.Contrairement à l’inhibition pharmacologique qui suggère un rôle de rgs4 dans la myélinisation périphérique, le mutant ne présente pas de défauts de myéline. / Schwann cells (SCs) are the myelinating glial cells of the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS). They derive from neural crest cells during development, then migrate and divide along the axons of the peripheral nerves. This migratory division is followed by a post-migratory division in order to radially sort the axons in a 1:1 ratio and wrap them with a myelin sheath. This work provides an analysis of the polarity of SC divisions, in vivo, in intact zebrafish embryos.We showed that SCs divide parallel to the axons along the Posterior Lateral Line nerve (PLL). By analyzing the two mutants has and nok, we revealed that the apical polarity genes aPKC and pals1, are neither required for the migration and division of SCs, nor for their capacity to myelinate. By studying the cassiopeia mutant that shows defects in mitotic spindle, we revealed that the assembly of the mitotic spindle is essential for SC myelination.We have also analysed the role of rgs4 (regulator of G-protein Signaling 4) in PNS development. We generated a stable rgs4 mutant using the CRISPR/Cas9 technology. We showed that rgs4 plays an essentiel role in PLLg and motoneurons development by acting upstream of PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway. Pharmacological analysis suggested a role for rgs4 in peripheral myelination, however, the rgs4 mutant do not show any myelin defects.

During adolescence, the brain undergoes significant reorganization due to myelination and synaptic pruning. These changes are associated with risk-taking behaviors and the development of social relationships. Recent advancements in adolescent brain development can potentially enhance strategies for preventing and treating mental health disorders. This systematic review focuses on structural changes in the adolescent brain, specifically emphasizing a decrease in gray matter and an increase in white matter changes. Four longitudinal MRI studies were included in this systematic review to identify changes in brain volume among healthy adolescents with an age range of 10 to 19 years. The results revealed observable changes in gray and white matter volume in various brain regions during this period. A decrease in gray matter was observed in the frontal, temporal, and parietal cortex, and several subcortical regions. Contrary to our expectations, the amygdala displayed an increase in gray matter in early adolescence. We expected this findings to occur in late childhood. The results also indicated that males undergo more significant changes in the brain during this period than females. Considering the Social Process Network (SIPN) and triadic model, changes occurring in the frontal cortex and the amygdala could be linked to social behavior. While the changes in the thalamus, hippocampus, and amygdala may be linked to heightened risk-taking and mental health disorders. Further research is necessary to clarify the relationship between mental health disorders, behaviors, and developmental processes during adolescence.

During differentiation stem cells are exposed to a range of microenvironmental chemical and physical cues. In this study, human multipotent progenitor cells (hMLPCs) were differentiated from umbilical cord into oligodendrocytes and astrocytes. Chemical cues were represented by a novel defined differentiation medium containing the neurotransmitter norepinephrine (NE). In traditional 2 dimensional (2D) conditions, the hMLPCs differentiated into oligodendrocyte precursors, but did not progress further. However, in a constructed 3 dimensional (3D) environment, the hMLPCs differentiated into committed oligodendrocytes that expressed MBP. When co-cultured with rat embryonic hippocampal neurons (EHNs), hMLPCs developed in astrocytes or oligodendrocytes, based on presence of growth factors in the differentiation medium. In co-culture, physical cues provided by axons were essential for complete differentiation of both astrocytes and oligodendrocytes. This study presents a novel method of obtaining glia from human MLPCs that could eliminate many of the difficulties associated with their differentiation from embryonic stem cells. In addition, it reveals the complex interplay between physical cues and biomolecules on stem cell differentiation.

No description available.

Glia, once considered as mere ‘glue’ for the central nervous system (CNS), have now emerged as active participants in almost every aspect of nervous system development, homeostasis, and even disease. Among these, oligodendroglia, comprising of oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs) and mature oligodendrocytes (OLs) are responsible for myelinating the CNS. Additionally, recent discoveries have implicated these cells in other processes including phagocytosis, synaptogenesis, ability to influence neural activity, and even animal behaviour. OPCs originate during embryogenesis from neural stem cells, establish a non-overlapping grid-like pattern across CNS, and persist throughout life. They are also one of the most proliferative cell types within the brain, which differentiate into OLs. Given their widespread presence and multifaceted functions, it is not surprising that oligodendroglia are implicated in the pathogenesis of diseases such as Multiple Sclerosis (MS). MS is a highly prevalent demyelinating disease, characterised by a severe loss of OLs, neuronal atrophy, and disrupted neural circuits. Furthermore, the endogenous mechanisms of repair and regeneration fail, leading to progressive deterioration, including motor deficits and cognitive decline. Current clinical therapies mainly focus on slowing disease progression and alleviating symptoms. Therefore, there is an urgent need for the development of novel and improved regenerative therapies. My doctoral research focused on OPCs as a therapeutic avenue due to their stem-cell-like properties. By leveraging established links between cell cycle regulation and proliferation, my study aimed to specifically target G1 phase shortening through Cdk4 and CyclinD1 (4D) overexpression. To first evaluate its effect under physiological conditions, I employed a sophisticated triple transgenic mouse line that allows for spatiotemporal control of 4D overexpression in oligodendroglia. This approach led to an increase in OPC proliferation in the white and grey matter of the brain, effectively enhancing oligodendrogenesis. Subsequently, I tested the efficacy of 4D in a preclinical model of MS using cuprizone-induced demyelination. While no significant improvements in learning and memory functions were evident, a comprehensive analysis of cellular and functional effects of 4D will shed light on its mechanisms of action. Additionally, it is plausible that 4D might have positive outcomes on other aspects of behaviour; however, this requires further investigation. Altogether, the findings presented in this thesis introduce a novel tool aimed at augmenting endogenous oligodendrogenesis under physiological conditions and represent a significant step toward developing innovative therapeutic strategies for demyelinating disorders.:Table of Contents CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1. HISTORY OF OLIGODENDROGLIA 1 1.2. OLIGODENDROGLIA DURING DEVELOPMENT 4 1.3. OLIGODENDROGLIA IN ADULTHOOD 7 1.3.1. OPCS – DENSITY AND FUNCTIONS 7 1.3.2. OLS – DENSITY AND FUNCTIONS 8 1.4. OLIGODENDROGLIAL HETEROGENEITY 11 1.4.1. OPCS 11 1.4.2. OLS 12 1.5. OPC CELL CYCLE DYNAMICS 14 1.5.1. QUANTIFICATION OF OPC CELL CYCLE LENGTH 15 1.5.2. FACTORS INFLUENCING OPC CELL CYCLE 16 1.6. MYELIN AND MYELINATION 19 1.6.1. STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION 19 1.6.2. FUNCTIONS 20 1.7. OLIGODENDROGENESIS AND BEHAVIOUR 21 1.7.1. LEARNING AND MEMORY 21 1.7.2. OTHERS 23 1.8. OLIGODENDROGLIA IN DISEASE AND REGENERATION 24 1.9. MS 26 1.9.1. MOUSE MODELS OF MS 28 1.10. CURRENT THERAPIES FOR DEMYELINATING DISEASES 31 1.11. AIM OF THE PROJECT 33 CHAPTER 2: MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.1. MATERIALS 36 2.1.1. MOUSE STRAINS 36 2.1.2. GENOTYPING PRIMERS 36 2.1.3. BUFFERS AND SOLUTIONS 37 2.1.4. CHEMICALS AND KITS 38 2.1.5. ANTIBODIES 39 2.2. METHODS 40 2.2.1. ANIMALS 40 2.2.2. GENOTYPING 40 2.2.3. DRUG TREATMENTS 40 2.2.4. BEHAVIOUR TESTS 41 2.2.4.1. OFT 41 2.2.4.2. EPM 42 2.2.4.3. ROTAROD 42 2.2.4.4. RW/CW 42 2.2.4.5. MWM 43 2.2.4.6. BM 44 2.2.5. IMMUNOHISTOCHEMISTRY 46 2.2.6. IMAGE ACQUISITION AND CELLULAR QUANTIFICATION 46 2.2.8. STATISTICS 47 CHAPTER 3: RESULTS - PART I CELLULAR AND BEHAVIOURAL EFFECTS OF GENETIC MANIPULATION OF CELL CYCLE OF OLIGODENDROCYTE PROGENITORS VIA CDK4/CYCLIND1 (4D) OVEREXPRESSION 3.1. CHARACTERISATION OF 4D OVEREXPRESSION MEDIATED BY TRIPLE TRANSGENIC MICE 48 3.2. 4D OVEREXPRESSION IN ADULT MICE INCREASES OPC PROLIFERATION IN CC AND CTX 49 3.3. 4D-INDUCED INCREASE IN OPC PROLIFERATION IS AGE-DEPENDENT 51 3.4. 4D OVEREXPRESSION INCREASES DENSITY OF OLS AND MYELIN IN CC AND CTX 52 3.5. 4D-INDUCED INCREASE IN OPC PROLIFERATION IS TEMPORALLY CORRELATED TO ACTIVATION OF 4D 53 3.6. 4D OVEREXPRESSION DOES NOT AFFECT ANXIETY-LIKE BEHAVIOUR ON THE OPEN FIELD AND ELEVATED PLUS MAZE TEST 55 3.7. 4D OVEREXPRESSION LEADS TO IMPAIRED LEARNING ON THE MORRIS WATER MAZE TEST 57 3.8. 4D OVEREXPRESSION NEGATIVELY IMPACTS RUNNING SPEEDS ON THE RUNNING/COMPLEX WHEEL TEST 59 3.9. 4D OVEREXPRESSION HAS A LONG-TERM NEGATIVE EFFECT ON RUNNING SPEEDS ON THE RUNNING/COMPLEX WHEEL TEST 61 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS - PART II CELLULAR AND BEHAVIOURAL CHARACTERISATION OF CUPRIZONE-INDUCED DEMYELINATION MODEL OF MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS 4.1. CUPRIZONE DIET LEADS TO OLIGODENDROCYTE LOSS AND DEMYELINATION ACROSS BRAIN REGIONS 64 4.2. TERMINATION OF CUPRIZONE DIET TRIGGERS SPONTANEOUS REGENERATION ACROSS BRAIN REGIONS 66 4.3. CUPRIZONE-INDUCED DEMYELINATION IMPAIRS LEARNING ON THE MORRIS WATER MAZE TEST 68 4.4. CUPRIZONE-INDUCED DEMYELINATION ADVERSELY AFFECTS BODY WEIGHT AND PERFORMANCE ON THE RUNNING/COMPLEX WHEEL TEST 70 CHAPTER 5: RESULTS - PART III BEHAVIOURAL EFFECT OF 4D-INDUCED OLIGODENDROGENESIS IN THE MODEL OF CUPRIZONE-INDUCED DEMYELINATION 5.1. 4D OVEREXPRESSION BEFORE THE ONSET OF CUPRIZONE-INDUCED DEMYELINATION DOES NOT RESCUE COGNITIVE PERFORMANCE ON BARNES MAZE 73 5.2. 4D OVEREXPRESSION BEFORE THE ONSET OF CUPRIZONE-INDUCED DEMYELINATION DOES NOT RESCUE MOTOR PERFORMANCE ON THE RUNNING/COMPLEX WHEEL TEST 75 5.3. SIMULTANEOUS 4D OVEREXPRESSION AND CUPRIZONE-INDUCED DEMYELINATION DOES NOT RESCUE MOTOR PERFORMANCE ON THE RUNNING/COMPLEX WHEEL TEST 78 CHAPTER 6: DISCUSSION 6.1. CELLULAR IMPLICATIONS OF 4D OVEREXPRESSION UNDER PHYSIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS 81 6.2. BEHAVIOURAL IMPLICATIONS OF 4D OVEREXPRESSION UNDER PHYSIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS 85 6.3. 4D AS A THERAPEUTIC TOOL 88 6.4. CONCLUSIONS AND OUTLOOK 90 REFERENCES 93 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 124 APPENDIX I 125 APPENDIX II 126

L’inhalation de monoxyde d’azote (NO) est l’une des thérapies les plus utilisées en réanimation néonatale. Cependant, peu de données sont disponibles sur l’impact de l’inhalation de NO sur le développement cérébral et le devenir des enfants prématurés. Nous avons étudié l’impact du monoxyde d’azote inhalé (iNO) sur le cerveau en développement chez le rongeur. Des portées et leur mère sont placés sous 5 à 20 ppm de NO de la naissance (P0) jusqu’au 7ème jour de vie postnatal (P7). Les animaux exposés au NO présentent une augmentation transitoire de l’angiogenèse et de la myélinisation, sans incidence sur les fonctions cognitives à l’âge adulte. L’exposition au NO est associée à une prolifération d’oligodendrocytes immatures et à une maturation anticipée des formes myélinisantes. Les rôles du NO endogène et du couple VEGF/VEGFR2 dans ces effets ont été évalués via l’injection d’antagonistes : LNAME pour inhiber les NOS, SU-5416 comme antagoniste du VEGFR2. Dans les deux cas, l’inhalation de NO corrige les anomalies de myélinisation et d’angiogenèse induites par ces inhibiteurs. Nous avons soumis des ratons à une agression excitotoxique par injection intracérébrale d’agonistes du glutamate. A P10 les rats exposés au iNO avant l’injection présentent des lésions moins importantes ; ainsi qu’un diminution de densité des microglies activées et des astrocytes. Cet effet neuroprotecteur est associé à une régulation de sous-unités des récepteurs au glutamate dès P5. Cet effet transcriptionnel semble lié à la modulation de la signalisation pCREB/Akt. Les effets à distance du iNO sont liés à un transport réversible endovasculaire du NO. In fine, du NO est delivré à la cellule et les concentrations intracellaires de cGMP augmentent d’un facteur 5. Plusieurs facteurs de transcription sont régulés : PDGFR-α, Sema3F, les sous-unités des récepteurs au glutamate, Thrombospondine-1. Cette dernière est un antagoniste naturel de la signalisation NO-cGMP. L’injection de ABT-510, agoniste de TSP-1, abolit les effets du iNO, confirmant l’hypothèse que les effets à distance reposent sur la signalisation NO-Guanylate Cyclase soluble-cGMP. Au total, nous avons démontré que le iNO est transporté de manière réversible et delivré au cerveau en développement. Il y exerce un effet pro-angiogénique et pro-myélinisant, via une signalisation cGMP, régulée par la thrombospondine-1. Plus encore, l’exposition prophylactique au iNO diminue l’impact d’une agression excitotoxique. Ce qui augure de propriétés neuroprotectrices prometteuses en néonatalogie, et au delà. / Inhaled nitric oxide (iNO) is one of the most promising therapies used in neonates, but littlei known about its effect on the developing brain. We explored the effects of iNO on developing brain in rodent pups, and pathway involved in iNO remote effects. Rat pups and their mothers were placed in a chamber containing 5 to 20 ppm of NO for 7 days after birth. Extensive serum analysis, immunochemistry, RT-PCR analysis, were performed Neonatal exposure to iNO was associated with a transient increase in central nervous system myelination and angiogenesis in rats, without any behavioral consequences in adulthood. Exposure to iNO was associated with a proliferative effect on immature oligodendrocytes and a subsequent promaturational effect. The role of endogenous NO in myelination was investigated in animals treated with the nitric oxides synthase inhibitor N-nitro-L- arginine methyl ester (L-NAME) in the neonatal period ; this led to protracted myelination defects and subsequent behavioral deficits in adulthood. These effects were reversed by rescuing L-NAME-treated animals with iNO. We challenged animals with intracranial injection of glutamate agonists. At P10, rat pups exposed to iNO exhibited a significant decrease of lesion size in both the white matter and cortical plate compared to controls. Microglia activation and astrogliosis were found significantly decreased in NO-exposed animals. This neuroprotective effect was associated with a significantdecrease of several glutamate receptor subunits expression at P5. iNO was associated with an early(P1) downregulation of pCREB/pAkt expression and induced an increase in pAkt proteinconcentration in response to excitotoxic challenge (P7) Those effects were related to a release of NOto the cells, and a rise of cGMP intracellular concentration. Several transcription factor wereregulated, namely PDGFR-α, Sema3F, TSP-1, glutamate receptors subunits, Thrombospondin-1. Thelatter was responsible for NO pathway regulation, and injection of TSP-1 agonist (AbT-510) abolishediNO remote effects. iNO remote effects are not associated VEGF concentration increase nor VEGFRstimulation, as VEGF-R antagonist SU54-16 failed to abolish iNO effects on angiogenesis andmyelination. Moreover iNO reverses severe myelination and angiogenesis defects induced by this SU-5416. Thus, we demonstrate transport and considerable remote effect of iNO on angiogenesis andmyelination in rodents. Those effects are related to an enhancement of cGMP pathway, regulated byTSP-1, and transcriptional effects. Moreover we described and investigated the neuroprotectiveeffect of iNO in neonatal excitotoxic-induced brain damage. These data point to potential newavenues for neuroprotection in human perinatal brain damage.