<p>Primary cilia are evolutionarily conserved, acetylated microtubule-based organelles that transduce mechanical and chemical signals. Primary cilium assembly is tightly controlled and its deregulation causes a spectrum of human diseases. Formation of primary cilium is a collaborative effort of multiple cellular machineries, including microtubule, actin network and membrane trafficking. How cells coordinate these components to construct the primary cilia remains unclear. In this dissertation research, we utilized a combination of cell biology, biochemistry and light microscopy technologies to tackle the enigma of primary cilia formation, with particular focus on isoform-specific roles of non-muscle myosin II family members. We found that myosin IIB (Myh10) is required for cilium formation. In contrast, myosin IIA (Myh9) suppresses cilium formation. In Myh10 deficient cells, Myh9 inactivation significantly restores cilia formation. Myh10 antagonizes Myh9 and increases actin dynamics, permitting pericentrosomal preciliary complex formation required for cilium assembly. Importantly, Myh10 is upregulated upon serum starvation-induced ciliogenesis and this induction requires Atat1/Mec-17, the microtubule acetyltransferase. Our findings suggest that Atat1/Mec17-mediated microtubule acetylation is coupled to Myh10 induction, whose accumulation overcomes the Myh9-dependent actin cytoskeleton, thereby activating cilium formation. Thus, Atat1/Mec17 and myosin II coordinate microtubules and the actin cytoskeleton to control primary cilium biogenesis.</p> / Dissertation

The work presented in this thesis was inspired by one of the most fascinating classes of naturally occurring molecules: bipedal motor proteins from the kinesin, dynein and myosin superfamilies walk along cellular tracks, carrying out essential tasks, such as vesicle transport, muscle contraction or force generation. Although a few synthetic mimicks based on DNA have been described, small-molecule analogues that exhibit the most important characteristics of the biological walkers were still missing until recently. In this thesis, the design, synthesis and operation of several small-molecule walker-track systems is described. All presented systems share a similar molecular architecture, featuring disulfide and hydrazone walker-track linkages, yet deviate fundamentally in the mechanism and energy input that is required for directional walker transport. Chapter I includes an overview of the biological walker proteins, as well as a comprehensive review of the DNA-based mimicks published to date. A set of fundamental walker characteristics is identified and special emphasis is given to the underlying physical mechanisms. Chapter II describes a series of experiments, which lay the groundwork for all smallmolecule walker systems presented in the following Chapters of this thesis. The mutually exclusive nature of disulfide and hydrazone exchange under basic and acidic reaction conditions, was demonstrated using an unprecedented type of macrocycle. The first small-molecule walker-track system is described in Chapter III. Due to the passive nature of both the track and the walker unit, an oscillation of acidic and basic reaction conditions led to a directionally un-biased, intramolecular ‘diffusion’ of the walker unit along the track. Using an irreversible redox-reaction for one of the foot-track exchange reactions conferred a certain degree of directionality to the walking sequence, with the oxidant iodine providing the chemical fuel for the underlying Brownian information ratchet mechanism. Chapter IV contains a comprehensive investigation of the dynamic properties of a series of walker-track conjugates derived from the walker-track conjugate presented in Chapter III. The most significant observation was that ring strain appears to be a requirement for the emergence of directional bias, a phenomenon that has also been found in biological walkers. In Chapter V a different type of walker-track conjugate is described, in which the track plays an active role and light is used as the fuel required for directional walker transport. The key for achieving directionality was the presence of a stilbene unit as part of the molecular track, through which ring strain could be induced in the isomer where the walker unit bridges the E-stilbene linkage. Significantly, the underlying Brownian energy ratchet mechanism allowed walker transport in either direction of the molecular track. Chapters II to V are presented in the form of articles that have recently been published or will be published in due course in peer-reviewed journals. No attempt has been made to re-write this work out of context, other than to avoid repetition, insert crossreferences to other Chapters (where appropriate) and to ensure consistency of presentation throughout this thesis. Chapters II, III, IV and V are reproduced in the Appendix, in their published formats. The Outlook contains closing remarks about the scope and significance of the presented work as well as ideas for the design and operation of a next generation of small-molecule walkers, some of which are well under way in the laboratory.

A novel luminescence resonance energy transfer (LRET) nanocircuit assay involving a donor and two acceptors in tandem was developed to study the dynamic interaction of skeletal muscle contraction proteins. The donor transmits energy relayed to the acceptors distinguishing myosin subfragment-1 (S1) lever arm orientations. The last acceptor allows the detection of S1's bound near or in between troponin complexes on the thin filament. Additionally, calcium related changes between troponin T and myosin were detected. Based on this data, the troponin complex situated every 7 actin monomers, hinders adjacently bound myosins to complete their power stroke; whereas myosins bound in between troponin complexes undergo complete power strokes.

The purpose of this investigation was to employ newly improved qualitative and quantitative chromatographic techniques to obtain purified myosin from 1 G and 3 G chick embryos and to determine if muscle myosin production either follows or precedes the unparallel bone growth during chronic acceleration as reported by several investigators.

mRNA localization ensures correct spatial and temporal control of protein synthesis in the cell. Using a single molecule in vitro approach, we provide insight into the mechanisms by which localizing mRNAs are carried by molecular motors on cytoskeletal tracks to their destination. Budding yeast serves as a model system for studying the mechanisms of mRNA transport because localizing mRNAs are moved on actin tracks in the cell by a single class V myosin motor, Myo4p. Molecular motors that specialize in cargo transport are generally double-headed so that they can "walk" for many microns without dissociating, a feature known as processivity. Thus, is was surprising when Myo4p purified from yeast was shown by in vitro assays to be non-processive. The reason for its inability to move processively is that the Myo4p heavy chain does not dimerize with itself, but instead binds tightly to the adapter protein She3p to form a single-headed motor complex. The mRNA-binding adapter protein She2p links Myo4p to mRNA cargo by binding She3p. To understand the molecular mechanisms of mRNA transport in budding yeast, we fully reconstituted a messenger ribonucleoprotein (mRNP) complex from purified proteins and a localizing mRNA (ASH1) found in budding yeast. Using single molecule in vitro assays, we find that She2p recruits two Myo4p-She3p complexes, forming a processive double-headed motor complex that is stabilized by mRNA at physiological ionic strength. Thus, only in the presence of mRNA is Myo4p capable of continuous mRNA transport, an elegant mechanism that ensures that only cargo bound motors are motile. We next wished to understand if the principles of mRNA transport in budding yeast are conserved in higher eukaryotes. In Drosophila, mRNA is transported on microtubule tracks by cytoplasmic dynein, and the adapters that link the motor to localizing transcripts are well-defined. The adapter protein bicaudal D (BicD) coordinates dynein motor activity with mRNA cargo binding. The N-terminus of BicD binds dynein, and the C-terminus interacts with the mRNA-binding protein Egalitarian. Unlike mammalian dynein alone, it was recently shown that an N-terminal fragment of BicD (BicD2CC1), in combination with a large 1.2MDa multi-subunit accessory complex called dynactin, forms a complex (DDBCC1) that is activated for long processive runs. But unlike the constitutively activated BicD2CC1 fragment, the full-length BicD molecule fails to recruit dynein-dynactin because it is auto-inhibited by interactions between the N-terminal dynein binding domain and the C-terminal cargo binding domain. To understand how dynein is activated by native cargo and full-length adapters, we fully reconstituted a mRNP complex in vitro from tissue-purified dynein and dynactin, expressed full-length adapters BicD and Egalitarian, and a synthesized localizing mRNA found in Drosophila. We find that only mRNA-bound Egalitarian is capable of relieving BicD auto-inhibition for the recruitment of dynein-dynactin, and activation of mRNA transport in vitro. Thus, the presence of an mRNA cargo for activation of motor complexes is a conserved mechanism in both budding yeast and higher eukaryotes to ensure that motor activity is tightly coupled to cargo selection.

The nucleus of mammalian cells has been proven to be highly organised. A recent study on interphase chromosome positioning has identified low serum induced rapid chromosome repositioning. Chromosome 10 initially localised at an intermediate position in normal proliferating human dermal fibroblasts (HDF) was found to relocate to the nuclear periphery 15 minutes after the cells have been incubated in low serum. Whereas chromosome X has remained in a peripheral position. The relocation of chromosome 10 has been shown to be dependant on both actin and myosin functions. In this project we have further investigated the possible role of nuclear myosin I in chromosome 10 repositioning. Using siRNA to block the expression of the nuclear myosin I (NMI) we were able to identify this nuclear myosin as necessary for the rapid repositioning of chromosome 10. Furthermore, using image analysis software we investigated the effect of the NMI knock down on the overall nuclear size and shape. The analysis has revealed that while the nuclear size of normal proliferating cells remained unchanged after the low serum incubation both in cells expressing the NMI and NMI depleted cells, the knock down of the NMI seems to have affected the nuclear shape when the cells were subjected to the serum incubation. On the other hand, the analysis of the chromosome territories area has revealed significant differences in the chromosome territories sizes before and after the low serum incubation, in normal proliferating HDF cells .

Adherens junctions (AJs) and tight junctions (TJs) are characteristic features of differentiated epithelial cells and are critical for regulation of epithelial barriers and cell polarity. Integrity and remodeling of epithelial junctions depend on their interactions with underlying actomyosin cytoskeleton. Anillin is a multifunctional scaffold able to interact with different cytoskeletal proteins including F-actin and Myosin II. This project aimed to investigate roles of anillin in regulating epithelial AJs and TJs. Using A549 human lung epithelial and DU145 human prostate epithelial cells, we demonstrated the anillin depletion-induced loss of AJs and TJs. This was accompanied by disorganization of perijunctional actomyosin belt and disruption of the adducin-based membrane skeleton that links actin filaments to the plasma membrane and epithelial junctions. Depletion of anillin decreased protein levels of γ-adducin and downregulation of γ-adducin mimicked effects anillin knockdown on AJ and TJ integrity. These findings suggest a novel role for anillin in the assembly of epithelial junctions.

Resonance energy transfer was employed to study the conformational changes of actomyosin during ATP hydrolysis. To calibrate the technique, the parameters for resonance energy transfer were defined. With conformational searching algorithms to predict probe orientation, the distances measured by resonance energy transfer are highly consistent with the atomic models, which verified the accuracy and feasibility of resonance energy transfer for structural studies of proteins and oligonucleotides. To study intramyosin distances, resonance energy transfer probes were attached to skeletal myosin's nucleotide site, subfragment-2, and regulatory light chain to examine nucleotide analog-induced structural transitions. The distances between the three positions were measured in the presence of different nucleotide analogs. No distance change was considered to be statistically significant. The measured distance between the regulatory light chain and nucleotide site was consistent with either the atomic model of skeletal myosin subfragment-1 or an average of the three models claimed for different ATP hydrolysis states, which suggested that the neck region was flexible in solution. To examine the participation of actin in the powerstroke process, resonance energy transfer between different sites on actin and myosin was measured in the presence of nucleotide analogs. The efficiencies of energy transfer between myosin catalytic domain and actin were consistent with the actoS1 docking model. However, the neck region was much closer to the actin filament than predicted by static atomic models. The efficiency of energy transfer between Cys 374 and the regulatory light chain was much greater in the presence of ADP-AlF4, ADP-BeFx, and ADP-vanadate than in the presence of ADP or no nucleotide. These data detect profound differences in the conformations of the weakly and strongly attached crossbridges which appear to result from a conformational selection that occurs during the weak binding of the myosin head to actin. The resonance energy transfer data exclude a number of versions of the swinging lever arm model, and indicate that actin participation is indispensable for conformational changes leading to force generation. The conformational selection during weak binding at the actomyosin interface may precock the myosin head for the ensuing powerstroke.

In dieser Arbeit wurden drei verschiedene Gruppen von humanen Myokardproben aus dem interventrikulären Septum mittels elektrophoretischer Verfahren auf Veränderungen in der Zusammensetzung der kontraktilen Proteine untersucht. 6 der insgesamt 38 Proben stammten von gesunden Herzen, die aus technischen Gründen nicht transplantiert werden konnten. 19 der Proben stammten von Patienten, die an einer hypertrophischen-obstruktiven Kardiomyopathie (HOCM) litten und die restlichen 13 Proben von Patienten mit einer valvulären Aortenstenose (AS). Die 32 kranken Herzen befanden sich allesamt im Stadium der kompensierten Hypertrophie, an klinischen Daten waren von diesen Patienten die Ejektionsfraktion (EF), der Durchmesser des interventrikulären Septums (IVS) sowie die linksventrikuläre enddiastolische Füllungsdruck (LVEDP). Die Ejektionsfraktion lag bei allen diesen Patienten mit Werten zwischen 62% und 88% (Mittelwert 73 ± 7%) im Normbereich, zwischen der HOCM- und der Aortenstenosegruppe bestand kein signifikanter Unterschied. Die insgesamt 38 Gewebeproben wurden mittels 3 verschiedener elektrophoretischer Verfahren auf das Vorliegen von 3 verschiedener Veränderungen in der Proteinzusammensetzung untersucht: 1. Mittels 2-dimensionaler Polyacrylamidgel-Elektrophorese (2D-PAGE) wurde der Phosphorylierungsgrad des kardialen Troponin I (cTnI) bestimmt. 2. Mittels 2-dimensionaler Polyacrylamidgel-Elektrophorese (2D-PAGE) wurde eine Analyse der leichten Myosinketten (MLC) durchgeführt, vor allem im Hinblick auf die Frage, ob und inwieweit es zu einer Expression der atrialen leichten Kette vom Typ I (ALC-1) kommt . 3. Mittels Natriumdodecylsulfat-Polyacrylamidgel-Elektrophorese (SDS-PAGE) wurde eine Bestimmung der schweren Myosinketten (MHC) vorgenommen, vor allem im Hinblick auf die Frage, ob es im hypertrophierten Myokard zu einer Expression der &#945;-Isoform der schweren Myosinkette (&#945;-MHC) kommt. Für alle dieser drei oben genannten Veränderungen finden sich Hinweise in der Literatur, dass sie möglicherweise eine Rolle bei der Myokardhypertrophie spielen könnten ohne dass bislang eine abschließende Klärung möglich war. In dieser Arbeit wurde zum ersten Mal ein derartig großes, klinisch gut evaluiertes Probenkollektiv von menschlichen Herzen im Stadium der kompensierten Hypertrophie auf das Vorliegen der o.g. Veränderungen untersucht. Ein weiterer wichtiger Aspekt ist das Vorliegen von zwei verschiedenen Ursachen (Aortenstenose und hypertrophisch-obstruktive Kardiomyopathie) für die Herzhypertrophie im Probenkollektiv dieser Arbeit. In der Zusammensetzung der schweren Myosinketten (MHC) sowie im Phosphorylierungsgrad des kardialen Troponin I (cTnI) konnten in dieser Arbeit keine signifikanten Unterschiede zwischen dem hypertrophiertem und dem gesunden Myokard gefunden werden. Im Bereich der leichten Myosinketten (MLC) konnte jedoch nachgewiesen werden, dass es in den hypertrophierten Herzen zu einer deutlichen, signifikanten Expression der atrialen leichten Myosinkette (ALC-1) in der Größenordnung von 10,8 ± 1,5 % an der Gesamtmenge der leichten Myosinketten vom Typ 1 (MLC-1) gekommen war. Im Gegensatz hierzu konnte die atriale leichte Kette vom Typ 1 (ALC-1) in keinem der gesunden Herzen nachgewiesen werden. Zudem konnte eine statistische hochsignifikante positive Korrelation (Koeffizient 0,56 nach Pearson) zwischen der Höhe der Ejektionsfraktion und dem Anteil der ALC-1 an der Gesamtmenge der leichten Myosinketten ermittelt werden. Diese Ergebnisse legen nahe, dass der Expression der ALC-1 ein hoher Stellenwert bei der Anpassung an erhöhte hämodynamische Anforderungen zukommt. Die positive Korrelation zwischen der Höhe der ALC-1-Expression und der Ejektionsfraktion weisen daraufhin, dass der ALC-1-Expression zumindest im Rahmen der kompensierten Hypertrophie ein positiver Effekt auf das Myokard zukommt. Dieser Effekt lässt sich anhand von früheren Veröffentlichungen erklären, die z.B. zeigten, dass die ALC-1 über eine Erhöhung der Ablösungsgeschwindigkeit zu einer Beschleunigung des Querbrückenzyklus und zu einer Erhöhung der Verkürzungsgeschwindigkeit und der isometrischen Kraftentwicklung führt. / To assess changes in the composition of contractile proteins we examined human myocardial samples from three different groups by means of electrophoretic analysis. 6 of 38 samples in total have been taken from healthy hearts which could not be transplanted due to technical reasons. 19 of the samples are from patients suffering from hypertophic obstructive cardiomyopathy and the remaining 13 samples from patients with a valvular aortic stenosis. The 32 impaired hearts have all been in the stadium of compensated hypertrophy, the ejection fraction, the diameter of the interventricular septum and the leftventricular enddiastolic pressure were kown. In all patients the ejection fraction was between 62% and 88% (73 ± 7% in the mean), thus in the normal range, there was no significant difference between the hypertrophic obstructive group and the valvular aortic stenosis group. All of the 38 samples have been examined by means of 3 different electrophoretical procedures. 1. 2-dimensional polyacrylamide gelelectrophoresis (2D-PAGE) for assessing the level of phosphorylation of the cardial troponin I(cTnI) 2. 2-dimensional polyacrylamidegelelectrophoresis (2D-PAGE) for analysing the composition of the myosin light chains (MLC)to answer the question whether there is an reexpression of the atrial light chain 1 (ALC-1) and if, to which extent. 3. Sodiumdodecylsulfate polyacrylamide gelelectrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) to assess the composition of the myosin heavy chains to answer the question whether there is an expression of the &#945;-Isoform of the myosin heavy chain (&#945;-MHC)in the hypertrophic myocardium. There are hints in literature that all 3 changes mentioned above could play a role in myocardial hypertrophy but it has not been possible to definitely clarify the role. We have analysed for the first time a great number of clinically well evaluated samples from hypertrophic human hearts in the stadium of compensated hypertrophy regarding those changes. Another important aspect of our work is that in our samples the cause of the hypertrophy have been two pathogenetically different diseases (valvular aortic stenosis and hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy). We could not find any significant differences between the hypertrophic and the nonhypertrophic hearts regarding the level of phosphorylation of the cardial troponin I (cTnI). We proved that in the hypertrophic heart there is a significant expression of the atrial light chain 1 (ALC-1) of about 10,8 ± 1,5 % of the total amount of myosin light chain 1 (MLC-1). In contrast to that there was no atrial light chain 1 (ALC-1) found in the nonhypertrophic hearts. Statistically there is a highly significant correlation (coefficient 0,56 after Pearson) between the level of the ejection fraction and the amount of the atrial light chain 1 (ALC-1) compared to the myosin light chain 1 (MLC-1) in total. These results suggest a highly important role of the ALC-1 expression in the adjustment of the heart to increased hemodynamic demands. The positive correlation between the level of the ALC-1 expression and the level of the ejection fraction suggests a positive effect of the ALC-1 expression on the myocardium during compensated hypertrophy. This effect can be explained by former publications which have shown that the expression of the ALC-1 can lead to an increased speed of displacement hence to an increased shortening velocity and an increased isometric force generation.

A montagem e desmontagem das adesões focais (AF) desempenham um papel fundamental em diversos processos celulares, incluindo migração celular e sobrevivência. Resultados prévios do nosso laboratório mostram que fibroblastos nulos ou silenciados para miosina-Va sofrem um atraso na desmontagem das adesões, sugerindo um papel para a miosinaVa neste processo. Neste trabalho, visamos analisar a dinâmica de montagem das AF em fibroblastos murinos imortalizados NIH3T3, utilizando sondas fluorescentes para visualização de componentes de adesão focal. A formação das AF foi analisada após estímulo por soro de células quiescentes, o que leva a intensa polimerização de actina, reorganização do citoesqueleto e montagem das AF. A cinética de montagem das AF foi observada em ensaios ao longo do tempo, de células fixadas em 0, 5, 15, 30, 120 minutos após estímulo, e marcadas para miosina-Va fosforilada (p-miosina-Va, S1650), FAK fosforilada (p-FAK, Y397), vinculina, dinamina-2, integrina-?1, faloidina, Ki67 e DAPI. Os nossos resultados mostraram um aumento de fluorescência de p-miosina-Va por todo o citoplasma após a estímulo com soro, e revelaram que a p-miosina-Va co-localiza com pFAK nas AF logo após o estímulo, essa localização da p-miosina-Va nas AF diminui ao passar do tempo e retorna após 120 minutos. Isto é consistente com os resultados anteriores de um papel da miosina-Va na dinâmica das AF. Também é possível perceber uma maior concentração de p-miosina-Va e dinamina-2 na região perinuclear, 5 minutos após estímulo, e o espalhamento de ambas as proteínas pelo citoplasma com o passar do tempo. Demonstramos, por Western blotting, que o estímulo por soro não causa alteração na quantidade total de miosina-Va em nenhum dos tempos analisados em relação à condição de quiescência, mas induz, após 5 e 15 minutos, um aumento apreciável de p-miosina-Va, que sofre queda e variações nos tempos posteriores. Para nosso conhecimento, esta é a primeira demonstração de que a fosforilação da miosina-Va aumenta em resposta ao soro e estamos investigando se este evento está ligado à dinâmica das adesões focais em fibroblastos / The assembly and disassembly of focal adhesions (FA) play a critical role in several cellular process, including cell migration and survival. Previous work from our laboratory showed that fibroblasts without myosin-Va show a delay in focal adhesion disassembly, suggesting a role for myosin-Va in this process. In this work, we aim at imaging the dynamics of focal adhesion disassembly and reassembly in cells, with fluorescent probes for visualization of focal adhesion components. Here, we used murine NIH3T3 fibroblasts to analyze FA formation after serum stimulation of quiescent cells, which leads to intense polymerization of actin and reorganization of the cytoskeleton and FA assembly. The kinetics of FA assembly was observed in a time-course assay of cells fixed at 0, 5, 15, 30 and 120 min after serum stimulation, and stained for phosphorylated myosin-Va (p-myosin-Va, S1650), phosphorylated FAK (p-FAK, Y397), vinculin, phalloidin and DAPI. Our results showed an increase of pmyosin-Va staining throughout the cytoplasm upon serum stimulation, and revealed that pmyosin-Va does not colocalize with FAK in FA at early time points. However, colocalization is observed after 30 to 120 min. This is consistent with previous results of a role for myosin-Va in FA disassembly. It is also possible to observe a higher concentration of p-myosin-Va and dynamin-2 in the perinuclear region 5 minutes after stimulation, and the spreading of both proteins in the cytoplasm over time. We demonstrate by Western blotting that serum stimulation does not cause change in total amount of myosin-Va, in any of the times analyzed in relation to the quiescent condition, but induces, after 5 and 15 minutes, an appreciable increase of pmyosin-Va suffering drop and variations in the later times. To our knowledge, this is the first demonstration that phosphorylation of myosin-Va increases in response to serum and we are investigating whether this event is connected to the dynamics of focal adhesions in fibroblasts