Natural killer (NK) cells can kill virus-infected cells without prior antigenic exposure, and are therefore important for controlling viral replication prior to the onset of adaptive immune responses. Primate NK cells express activating and inhibitory killer-cell immunoglobulin-like receptors (KIRs) that bind to specific major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules. The importance of KIR interactions with MHC class I in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) pathogenesis is demonstrated by the association of select KIR and MHC class I genotypes with delayed progression to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).

Meduloblastoma (MB) e Tumor Teratóide Rabdóide Atipico (TTRA) são tumores malignos do sistema nervoso central (SNC) que ocorrem na infância. Embora tenha havido um aumento na sobrevida, recorrência e metástases são frequentes e as opções terapêuticas poucas e tóxicas para crianças. Uma alternativa à terapia tradicional é a imunoterapia, que pode contornar os efeitos tóxicos associados à radioterapia e quimioterapia. De uma forma geral a imunoterapia depende da presença de antígenos associados a tumor (TAA) e/ou processamento de antígenos expressos pelo HLA classe I. No entanto, TAA para MB ou ATRT não estão bem definidos e tecidos neuronais tem a expressão de HLA classe I muito baixa. As células Natural Killer (NK) não dependem de TAA para citólise e são particularmente ativas na ausência de moléculas do HLA classe I tendo, portanto, potencial para o tratamento dessas doenças. Atualmente as barreiras para a aplicação clínica de células NK são quantitativas e qualitativas. Com o intuito de quebrar a barreira quantitativa foi criada uma plataforma tecnológica para a expansão das NK ex vivo. Essa plataforma consiste no co-cultivo de células mononucleares de sangue periférico com células apresentadoras de antígeno artificiais (aAPC), que expressam Interleucina 21 ligada à membrana. Com essa tecnologia foi possível expandir células NK na ordem de 40.000 vezes. Também foi demonstrada a persistência das células NK expandidas in vitro por 3 semanas após infusão em cérebro murino e que essas células expressam altos níveis de citocinas antitumorais e estimulantes do sistema imune: Interferon gama e Fator de Necrose Tumoral alfa. Finalmente, foi demonstrada a atividade citolítica das células NK tanto in vitro, contra um painel de células de MB e ATRT, quanto in vivo em um modelo murino de MB. Os resultados obtidos fornecem a primeira evidência pré-clínica que provê suporte ao uso de células NK expandidas usando essa plataforma tecnológica no combate a cânceres de cérebro pediátricos. Com base nesses dados, nosso grupo no MD Anderson Cancer Center iniciou um ensaio clínico fase I para testar a segurança e eficácia de administração locorregional de células NK expandidas usando aAPC para o tratamento de tumores pediátricos da fossa posterior do cérebro. / Medulloblastoma (MBs) and Atypical Teratoid/Rhabdoid Tumor (ATRT) are malignant pediatric brain tumors. Although survival has improved, recurrence and metastasis are frequent with few therapeutic options for these children. Immunotherapy is an alternative to traditional therapies that may circumvent the potential toxicities associated with traditional chemotherapy and radiation approaches. Many immune based therapies rely on the presence of tumor associated antigens (TAAs) and/or antigen processing and class I human leukocyte antigen (HLA I) expression. However, TAAs for MB are not well defined and neuronal tissues have very low HLA I expression. Natural killer (NK) cells do not rely on TAA for cytolysis and therefore have potential for the treatment of these diseases. The current barriers to clinical application of NK therapy are quantitative and qualitative. To overcome quantitative barriers, we have worked with a platform technology for the ex vivo expansion of NK cells through co-culture of peripheral blood mononuclear cells with artificial antigen presenting cells expressing membrane-bound IL-21 (mbIL21) to promote a 40,000-fold expansion of NK cells. We also demonstrate prolonged life-span of ex vivo expanded NK cells and persistence for up to 3 weeks post-infusion in the murine brain. These cells express high levels of immune stimulatory and anti-tumor cytokines - interferon gamma and TNF-alpha following activation. Finally we demonstrate NK cytolytic activity in vitro against a panel of primary and established ATRT and MB cells and in vivo following locoregional delivery in a mouse orthotopic model of MB. Our data provide the first pre-clinical evidence supporting the use of mbIL21 expanded NK cells against pediatric brain tumors. Based on this data we have initiated a novel Phase I clinical trial at MD Anderson Cancer Center to assess the safety and efficacy of locoregional delivery of mbIL21 expanded NK cells for the treatment of posterior fossa pediatric brain tumors.

Meduloblastoma (MB) e Tumor Teratóide Rabdóide Atipico (TTRA) são tumores malignos do sistema nervoso central (SNC) que ocorrem na infância. Embora tenha havido um aumento na sobrevida, recorrência e metástases são frequentes e as opções terapêuticas poucas e tóxicas para crianças. Uma alternativa à terapia tradicional é a imunoterapia, que pode contornar os efeitos tóxicos associados à radioterapia e quimioterapia. De uma forma geral a imunoterapia depende da presença de antígenos associados a tumor (TAA) e/ou processamento de antígenos expressos pelo HLA classe I. No entanto, TAA para MB ou ATRT não estão bem definidos e tecidos neuronais tem a expressão de HLA classe I muito baixa. As células Natural Killer (NK) não dependem de TAA para citólise e são particularmente ativas na ausência de moléculas do HLA classe I tendo, portanto, potencial para o tratamento dessas doenças. Atualmente as barreiras para a aplicação clínica de células NK são quantitativas e qualitativas. Com o intuito de quebrar a barreira quantitativa foi criada uma plataforma tecnológica para a expansão das NK ex vivo. Essa plataforma consiste no co-cultivo de células mononucleares de sangue periférico com células apresentadoras de antígeno artificiais (aAPC), que expressam Interleucina 21 ligada à membrana. Com essa tecnologia foi possível expandir células NK na ordem de 40.000 vezes. Também foi demonstrada a persistência das células NK expandidas in vitro por 3 semanas após infusão em cérebro murino e que essas células expressam altos níveis de citocinas antitumorais e estimulantes do sistema imune: Interferon gama e Fator de Necrose Tumoral alfa. Finalmente, foi demonstrada a atividade citolítica das células NK tanto in vitro, contra um painel de células de MB e ATRT, quanto in vivo em um modelo murino de MB. Os resultados obtidos fornecem a primeira evidência pré-clínica que provê suporte ao uso de células NK expandidas usando essa plataforma tecnológica no combate a cânceres de cérebro pediátricos. Com base nesses dados, nosso grupo no MD Anderson Cancer Center iniciou um ensaio clínico fase I para testar a segurança e eficácia de administração locorregional de células NK expandidas usando aAPC para o tratamento de tumores pediátricos da fossa posterior do cérebro. / Medulloblastoma (MBs) and Atypical Teratoid/Rhabdoid Tumor (ATRT) are malignant pediatric brain tumors. Although survival has improved, recurrence and metastasis are frequent with few therapeutic options for these children. Immunotherapy is an alternative to traditional therapies that may circumvent the potential toxicities associated with traditional chemotherapy and radiation approaches. Many immune based therapies rely on the presence of tumor associated antigens (TAAs) and/or antigen processing and class I human leukocyte antigen (HLA I) expression. However, TAAs for MB are not well defined and neuronal tissues have very low HLA I expression. Natural killer (NK) cells do not rely on TAA for cytolysis and therefore have potential for the treatment of these diseases. The current barriers to clinical application of NK therapy are quantitative and qualitative. To overcome quantitative barriers, we have worked with a platform technology for the ex vivo expansion of NK cells through co-culture of peripheral blood mononuclear cells with artificial antigen presenting cells expressing membrane-bound IL-21 (mbIL21) to promote a 40,000-fold expansion of NK cells. We also demonstrate prolonged life-span of ex vivo expanded NK cells and persistence for up to 3 weeks post-infusion in the murine brain. These cells express high levels of immune stimulatory and anti-tumor cytokines - interferon gamma and TNF-alpha following activation. Finally we demonstrate NK cytolytic activity in vitro against a panel of primary and established ATRT and MB cells and in vivo following locoregional delivery in a mouse orthotopic model of MB. Our data provide the first pre-clinical evidence supporting the use of mbIL21 expanded NK cells against pediatric brain tumors. Based on this data we have initiated a novel Phase I clinical trial at MD Anderson Cancer Center to assess the safety and efficacy of locoregional delivery of mbIL21 expanded NK cells for the treatment of posterior fossa pediatric brain tumors.

O vitiligo é uma doença dermatológica de causa desconhecida. O aparecimento se dá através de manchas branco-nacaradas na pele, ocorridas pela morte ou redução na funcionalidade das células epidérmicas, os melanócitos, que produzem a melanina, pigmento cutâneo. As células Natural Killer (NK) fazem parte do sistema imune inato e através de seus receptores KIR (Killer immunoglobulin-like-receptors) reconhecem moléculas de HLA (Human leukocyte antigen) classe I presentes nas células. Quando não há o reconhecimento do HLA classe I, como em células tumorais ou infectadas por vírus, a célula NK induz a morte da célula alvo. Uma das teorias para essa doença é a imunológica, a qual admite que o vitiligo seja doença autoimune pela formação de anticorpos antimelanócitos, podendo ser associado a outras doenças autoimunes. O objetivo deste estudo foi investigar polimorfismos dos genes KIR e HLA e sua associação com pacientes com vitiligo comparando com um grupo controle. Foram genotipados 112 pacientes com diagnóstico de vitiligo e 250 indivíduos saudáveis para 16 genes KIR e seus ligantes HLA por PCR-SSO e PCR-SSP respectivamente. Nossos resultados mostraram um fator de risco para a doença na interação do gene ativador KIR2DS1 com o seu ligante C2 (P=0,015; OR: 2,06). Também houve uma associação significativa do gene ativador KIR2DS1 com o ligante heterozigoto C1/C2 (P=0,025; OR: 2,26). A interação KIR2DS1/C2 está presente em 52,8% dos pacientes com vitiligo e em 35,2% do grupo controle, já a interação KIR2DS1/C1/C2 está presente em 54,7% dos pacientes com vitiligo e 34,9% do grupo controle. Nossos resultados sugerem um possível fator de risco do gene ativador KIR2DS1 com o seu ligante C2, sendo essa combinação uma possível susceptibilidade à doença. / Vitiligo is a skin disease of unknown cause. The main symptom of vitiligo is white patches on the skin. Which are caused by destruction of pigment-forming cells (melanocytes). Natural killer (NK) cells are part of the innate immune system and they recognize class I HLA molecules (human leukocyte antigen) through their KIR receptors (killer-cell immunoglobulin-like-receptors). When class I HLA molecules are not recognized, e.g.: tumour cells or virus-infected cells, NK cells induce the death of target cells. One of the possible aetiologies for this disease is the immune cause. According to this theory, vitiligo is an autoimmune disease caused by the production of anti-melanocyte antibodies and it may be associated with other autoimmune diseases. The objective of the present study was to investigate KIR and HLA gene polymorphisms and their association with vitiligo comparing with a control group. We genotyped 112 patients diagnosed with vitiligo and 250 healthy individuals for 16 KIR genes and their HLA ligands using PCR-SSO and PCR-SSP respectively. Our findings showed a risk factor for vitiligo in the interaction between the activating KIR2DS1 gene and its C2 ligand (P=0.015; OR: 2.06). There was also a significant association of the activating KIR2DS1 gene with the heterozygous C1/C2 ligand (P=0.025; OR: 2.26). The KIR2DS1/C2 interaction was found in 52.8% of vitiligo patients and in 35.2% of the control group; whereas the KIR2DS1/C1/C2 interaction was found in 54.7% of vitiligo patients and 34.9% of the control group. These findings suggest a possible risk factor related to the interaction between the activating KIR2DS1 gene and its C2 ligand, since this combination may be a disease susceptibility factor.

O vitiligo é uma doença dermatológica de causa desconhecida. O aparecimento se dá através de manchas branco-nacaradas na pele, ocorridas pela morte ou redução na funcionalidade das células epidérmicas, os melanócitos, que produzem a melanina, pigmento cutâneo. As células Natural Killer (NK) fazem parte do sistema imune inato e através de seus receptores KIR (Killer immunoglobulin-like-receptors) reconhecem moléculas de HLA (Human leukocyte antigen) classe I presentes nas células. Quando não há o reconhecimento do HLA classe I, como em células tumorais ou infectadas por vírus, a célula NK induz a morte da célula alvo. Uma das teorias para essa doença é a imunológica, a qual admite que o vitiligo seja doença autoimune pela formação de anticorpos antimelanócitos, podendo ser associado a outras doenças autoimunes. O objetivo deste estudo foi investigar polimorfismos dos genes KIR e HLA e sua associação com pacientes com vitiligo comparando com um grupo controle. Foram genotipados 112 pacientes com diagnóstico de vitiligo e 250 indivíduos saudáveis para 16 genes KIR e seus ligantes HLA por PCR-SSO e PCR-SSP respectivamente. Nossos resultados mostraram um fator de risco para a doença na interação do gene ativador KIR2DS1 com o seu ligante C2 (P=0,015; OR: 2,06). Também houve uma associação significativa do gene ativador KIR2DS1 com o ligante heterozigoto C1/C2 (P=0,025; OR: 2,26). A interação KIR2DS1/C2 está presente em 52,8% dos pacientes com vitiligo e em 35,2% do grupo controle, já a interação KIR2DS1/C1/C2 está presente em 54,7% dos pacientes com vitiligo e 34,9% do grupo controle. Nossos resultados sugerem um possível fator de risco do gene ativador KIR2DS1 com o seu ligante C2, sendo essa combinação uma possível susceptibilidade à doença. / Vitiligo is a skin disease of unknown cause. The main symptom of vitiligo is white patches on the skin. Which are caused by destruction of pigment-forming cells (melanocytes). Natural killer (NK) cells are part of the innate immune system and they recognize class I HLA molecules (human leukocyte antigen) through their KIR receptors (killer-cell immunoglobulin-like-receptors). When class I HLA molecules are not recognized, e.g.: tumour cells or virus-infected cells, NK cells induce the death of target cells. One of the possible aetiologies for this disease is the immune cause. According to this theory, vitiligo is an autoimmune disease caused by the production of anti-melanocyte antibodies and it may be associated with other autoimmune diseases. The objective of the present study was to investigate KIR and HLA gene polymorphisms and their association with vitiligo comparing with a control group. We genotyped 112 patients diagnosed with vitiligo and 250 healthy individuals for 16 KIR genes and their HLA ligands using PCR-SSO and PCR-SSP respectively. Our findings showed a risk factor for vitiligo in the interaction between the activating KIR2DS1 gene and its C2 ligand (P=0.015; OR: 2.06). There was also a significant association of the activating KIR2DS1 gene with the heterozygous C1/C2 ligand (P=0.025; OR: 2.26). The KIR2DS1/C2 interaction was found in 52.8% of vitiligo patients and in 35.2% of the control group; whereas the KIR2DS1/C1/C2 interaction was found in 54.7% of vitiligo patients and 34.9% of the control group. These findings suggest a possible risk factor related to the interaction between the activating KIR2DS1 gene and its C2 ligand, since this combination may be a disease susceptibility factor.

Meduloblastoma (MB) e Tumor Teratóide Rabdóide Atipico (TTRA) são tumores malignos do sistema nervoso central (SNC) que ocorrem na infância. Embora tenha havido um aumento na sobrevida, recorrência e metástases são frequentes e as opções terapêuticas poucas e tóxicas para crianças. Uma alternativa à terapia tradicional é a imunoterapia, que pode contornar os efeitos tóxicos associados à radioterapia e quimioterapia. De uma forma geral a imunoterapia depende da presença de antígenos associados a tumor (TAA) e/ou processamento de antígenos expressos pelo HLA classe I. No entanto, TAA para MB ou ATRT não estão bem definidos e tecidos neuronais tem a expressão de HLA classe I muito baixa. As células Natural Killer (NK) não dependem de TAA para citólise e são particularmente ativas na ausência de moléculas do HLA classe I tendo, portanto, potencial para o tratamento dessas doenças. Atualmente as barreiras para a aplicação clínica de células NK são quantitativas e qualitativas. Com o intuito de quebrar a barreira quantitativa foi criada uma plataforma tecnológica para a expansão das NK ex vivo. Essa plataforma consiste no co-cultivo de células mononucleares de sangue periférico com células apresentadoras de antígeno artificiais (aAPC), que expressam Interleucina 21 ligada à membrana. Com essa tecnologia foi possível expandir células NK na ordem de 40.000 vezes. Também foi demonstrada a persistência das células NK expandidas in vitro por 3 semanas após infusão em cérebro murino e que essas células expressam altos níveis de citocinas antitumorais e estimulantes do sistema imune: Interferon gama e Fator de Necrose Tumoral alfa. Finalmente, foi demonstrada a atividade citolítica das células NK tanto in vitro, contra um painel de células de MB e ATRT, quanto in vivo em um modelo murino de MB. Os resultados obtidos fornecem a primeira evidência pré-clínica que provê suporte ao uso de células NK expandidas usando essa plataforma tecnológica no combate a cânceres de cérebro pediátricos. Com base nesses dados, nosso grupo no MD Anderson Cancer Center iniciou um ensaio clínico fase I para testar a segurança e eficácia de administração locorregional de células NK expandidas usando aAPC para o tratamento de tumores pediátricos da fossa posterior do cérebro. / Medulloblastoma (MBs) and Atypical Teratoid/Rhabdoid Tumor (ATRT) are malignant pediatric brain tumors. Although survival has improved, recurrence and metastasis are frequent with few therapeutic options for these children. Immunotherapy is an alternative to traditional therapies that may circumvent the potential toxicities associated with traditional chemotherapy and radiation approaches. Many immune based therapies rely on the presence of tumor associated antigens (TAAs) and/or antigen processing and class I human leukocyte antigen (HLA I) expression. However, TAAs for MB are not well defined and neuronal tissues have very low HLA I expression. Natural killer (NK) cells do not rely on TAA for cytolysis and therefore have potential for the treatment of these diseases. The current barriers to clinical application of NK therapy are quantitative and qualitative. To overcome quantitative barriers, we have worked with a platform technology for the ex vivo expansion of NK cells through co-culture of peripheral blood mononuclear cells with artificial antigen presenting cells expressing membrane-bound IL-21 (mbIL21) to promote a 40,000-fold expansion of NK cells. We also demonstrate prolonged life-span of ex vivo expanded NK cells and persistence for up to 3 weeks post-infusion in the murine brain. These cells express high levels of immune stimulatory and anti-tumor cytokines - interferon gamma and TNF-alpha following activation. Finally we demonstrate NK cytolytic activity in vitro against a panel of primary and established ATRT and MB cells and in vivo following locoregional delivery in a mouse orthotopic model of MB. Our data provide the first pre-clinical evidence supporting the use of mbIL21 expanded NK cells against pediatric brain tumors. Based on this data we have initiated a novel Phase I clinical trial at MD Anderson Cancer Center to assess the safety and efficacy of locoregional delivery of mbIL21 expanded NK cells for the treatment of posterior fossa pediatric brain tumors.

O vitiligo é uma doença dermatológica de causa desconhecida. O aparecimento se dá através de manchas branco-nacaradas na pele, ocorridas pela morte ou redução na funcionalidade das células epidérmicas, os melanócitos, que produzem a melanina, pigmento cutâneo. As células Natural Killer (NK) fazem parte do sistema imune inato e através de seus receptores KIR (Killer immunoglobulin-like-receptors) reconhecem moléculas de HLA (Human leukocyte antigen) classe I presentes nas células. Quando não há o reconhecimento do HLA classe I, como em células tumorais ou infectadas por vírus, a célula NK induz a morte da célula alvo. Uma das teorias para essa doença é a imunológica, a qual admite que o vitiligo seja doença autoimune pela formação de anticorpos antimelanócitos, podendo ser associado a outras doenças autoimunes. O objetivo deste estudo foi investigar polimorfismos dos genes KIR e HLA e sua associação com pacientes com vitiligo comparando com um grupo controle. Foram genotipados 112 pacientes com diagnóstico de vitiligo e 250 indivíduos saudáveis para 16 genes KIR e seus ligantes HLA por PCR-SSO e PCR-SSP respectivamente. Nossos resultados mostraram um fator de risco para a doença na interação do gene ativador KIR2DS1 com o seu ligante C2 (P=0,015; OR: 2,06). Também houve uma associação significativa do gene ativador KIR2DS1 com o ligante heterozigoto C1/C2 (P=0,025; OR: 2,26). A interação KIR2DS1/C2 está presente em 52,8% dos pacientes com vitiligo e em 35,2% do grupo controle, já a interação KIR2DS1/C1/C2 está presente em 54,7% dos pacientes com vitiligo e 34,9% do grupo controle. Nossos resultados sugerem um possível fator de risco do gene ativador KIR2DS1 com o seu ligante C2, sendo essa combinação uma possível susceptibilidade à doença. / Vitiligo is a skin disease of unknown cause. The main symptom of vitiligo is white patches on the skin. Which are caused by destruction of pigment-forming cells (melanocytes). Natural killer (NK) cells are part of the innate immune system and they recognize class I HLA molecules (human leukocyte antigen) through their KIR receptors (killer-cell immunoglobulin-like-receptors). When class I HLA molecules are not recognized, e.g.: tumour cells or virus-infected cells, NK cells induce the death of target cells. One of the possible aetiologies for this disease is the immune cause. According to this theory, vitiligo is an autoimmune disease caused by the production of anti-melanocyte antibodies and it may be associated with other autoimmune diseases. The objective of the present study was to investigate KIR and HLA gene polymorphisms and their association with vitiligo comparing with a control group. We genotyped 112 patients diagnosed with vitiligo and 250 healthy individuals for 16 KIR genes and their HLA ligands using PCR-SSO and PCR-SSP respectively. Our findings showed a risk factor for vitiligo in the interaction between the activating KIR2DS1 gene and its C2 ligand (P=0.015; OR: 2.06). There was also a significant association of the activating KIR2DS1 gene with the heterozygous C1/C2 ligand (P=0.025; OR: 2.26). The KIR2DS1/C2 interaction was found in 52.8% of vitiligo patients and in 35.2% of the control group; whereas the KIR2DS1/C1/C2 interaction was found in 54.7% of vitiligo patients and 34.9% of the control group. These findings suggest a possible risk factor related to the interaction between the activating KIR2DS1 gene and its C2 ligand, since this combination may be a disease susceptibility factor.

Au cours d’une infection, les cellules de l’immunité innée sont capables de reconnaître via les Toll-like receptors (TLR) des motifs appelés pathogen-associated molecular patterns. Les cellules natural killer (NK) contribuent au processus inflammatoire en produisant de nombreuses cytokines. Chez la souris, nous avons montré que l’expression du TLR2 et du TLR4 dans les cellules NK spléniques est intracellulaire, comme pour le TLR9. La réponse des NK aux agonistes des TLR2, 4 et 9 nécessite la présence de cytokines accessoires (IL-15 et IL-18), afin d’obtenir une production significative des cytokines pro-inflammatoires IFN- et GM-CSF. En revanche, dans un modèle de sepsis polymicrobial, les NK spléniques de souris présentent une diminution dramatique de leur production d’IFN- et de GM-CSF en réponse aux agonistes des TLR. Cette diminution est sous le contrôle des cellules T régulatrices (Treg) et due au TGF-1. L’analyse des voies de signalisation nous a permis de montrer que la production de GM-CSF est abolie chez les cellules NK de souris déficientes pour STING en réponse au CpG-DNA. Ces résultats mettent en lumière une voie alternative et cytoplasmique pour la détection de l’ADN bactérien dans les cellules NK, différente de la voie classique TLR9-MyD88 dépendante. De plus, nous avons montré un trafic du récepteur TLR2 depuis l’intérieur vers la surface des cellules NK. La migration du TLR2 à la surface des NK nécessite la molécule UNC93B1, précédemment décrite comme transporteur endosomal de TLR.Chez les cellules NK humaines circulantes (sous-populations CD3-CD56bright et CD3-CD56dim), nous avons montré que l’expression des TLR2 et 4 est majoritairement intracellulaire, comme pour le TLR9 et comme chez la souris. La production d’IFN- par les NK de sujets sains en réponse aux agonistes des TLR nécessite également la présence de cytokines accessoires. Nous montrons que cette production est fortement altérée pour les NK des patients admis en soins intensifs et ayant un sepsis ou un syndrome de réponse inflammatoire systémique (SIRS). De même nous avons trouvé des différences entre les patients et les sujets sains dans l’expression du CD69 (marqueur d’activation précoce) et des TLR eux-mêmes. Cette étude indique que les NK des patients sepsis et SIRS deviennent tolérants aux agonistes des TLR en terme de production d’IFN-, de manière similaire à ce qui a été décrit pour d’autres cellules comme les monocytes / As sensors of infection, innate immune cells are able to recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns by receptors such as Toll-like receptors (TLR). NK cells contribute to inflammatory processes by the production of numerous cytokines. In mice, we have shown that the protein expression of TLR2 and TLR4 in naive NK cells from spleen is predominantly intracellular, similarly to TLR9. The responsiveness of purified NK cells to TLR2, 4 or 9 agonists in vitro requires the presence of accessory cytokines (IL-15 and 18) to trigger a significant production of IFN- and GM-CSF. In contrast, NK cells purified from a model of in vivo polymicrobial sepsis, showed a dramatic reduction in their capacity to respond to TLR agonists in terms of IFN- and GM-CSF release due an inhibitory cross talk with Treg cells mediated by TGF-1. Analyzing the signaling pathways involved in cytokine production in response to CpG-DNA, we found that GM-CSF production was abolished in NK cells from STING-deficient mice, revealing that this intracytoplasmic receptor acts as a TLR9/MyD88-independent alternative sensor to bacterial DNA in NK cells. Additionally we show that intracellularly expressed TLR2 traffics to the cell surface of NK cells, by a mechanism involving UNC93B1, a protein previous described as an endosomal TLR carrier.In human peripheral blood NK cells (CD3-CD56bright and CD3-CD56dim subsets), we show that TLR2 and 4 protein expression is primarily intracellular, similar to TLR9, and similar to our findings in murine NK cells. The ex vivo responsiveness of human blood NK cells to TLR2, 4 or 9 agonists also requires accessory cytokines, to promote secretion of IFN-. In intensive care patients diagnosed with systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) and sepsis, IFN- production was significantly decreased. We also discovered modulations in the expression of CD69 (early activation marker) and in that of TLR themselves. This study indicates that NK cells undergo tolerance in response to TLR agonists during SIRS or sepsis, similarly to other cells, such as monocytes.

Natural killer (NK) cells represent a crucial component of the innate immune system and are primarily regulated by the interactions of their activation and inhibitory receptors with ligands available on target cells. The genetically linked Ly49 and NKR-P1 family of receptors constitute two of the major regulatory receptor systems used by NK cells and have been shown to bind different ligands. Whereas the Ly49 receptors survey MHC-I ligands on target cells, the NKR-Pl receptor family members bind to various members of the C-type lectin-related (Clr) family. Interestingly, NKR-P1 and Clr haplotypes possess a stable genomic polymorphism across multiple mouse strains, suggesting that this inhibitory receptor:ligand relationship has an important role in the maintenance of host cellular cognate specificities. The NKR-P1 and Clr receptor-ligand pairs identified in mice include the NKR-P1B:Clr-b and the NKR-P1G:Clr-f interacting pairs. Previous RT-PCR and in situ RNA hybridization data generated by our laboratory determined that kidney tubular epithelium as well as the small and large intestinal epithelial cells specifically and highly expresses the Clr-f transcripts. Contrarily, the Clr-b transcripts were only detected on hematopoietic cells of various lymphoid organs and kidneys. Moreover, foregoing studies revealed that the loss of Clr-b following viral or chemical induced stress mediates NK cell killing of the target cell, suggesting a tissue-specific immune-surveillance mechanism in parallel with the global MHC-I-dependent missing-self model. However, the role of the NKR-P1B:Clr-b recognition-system have never been examined in the intestine. Additionally, the role of Clr-f in the kidney and intestines, where they are highly expressed, has not been investigated. For these reasons, I aimed in my thesis to provide a better understanding of the functional aspect of the NKR-P1B:Clr-b and NKR-P1G:Clr-f recognition systems in mediating gut mucosal and renal homeostasis, respectively. First, in order to determine the role of NKR-P1B and Clrb receptor:ligand pair as a “missing-self” immunosurveillance system in the gut, I started by identifying the expression pattern of both the receptor and ligand on various intestinal cells. My results demonstrate that NK cells do not represent the major NKR-P1B-expressing cells in the gut lamina propria. Instead, ILC3 subsets constituted the predominant cell population expressing the receptor, whereas γδT cells composed a small fraction of NKR-P1B+ lymphocytes. In addition, the NKR-P1B expression on myeloid cells was exclusive to colon macrophages and DC subsets. Interestingly, the highest percentage of NKR-P1B+ immune cells was found in the gut, which suggests the dominant role of NKR-P1B in regulating immune functions at the level of intestinal mucosa. As expected, the expression of the NKR-P1B ligand, Clr-b, appeared on all innate immune cell types in the gut. Next, using oral infection models of Salmonela typhimurium and Citrobacter rodentium, I showed that NKR-P1B-deficient NK cells, ILC3 and γδ T cells are hyporesponsive compared to their WT counterparts. In particular, gut NKR-P1B-deficient NK cells and γδT cells secreted low levels of IFNγ cytokine while infected with S.typhimurium. Importantly, the decreased IFNγ secretion by NK and γδT cells was associated with an increased dissemination of the bacterium into the knockout spleens at day 5 post-infection. Likewise, I detected a significant decrease in IL-22 cytokine production by NKR-P1B-deficient ILC3 compared to their WT counterparts at both steady state and following C.rodentium infection. Next, I address the potential role of Clr-f in the kidney. Renal tubular epithelial cells have been shown to express high levels of Clr-f transcripts. Epithelial cells constitute the major cellular component of kidney tubules and are well known to mediate metabolic waste excretion, reabsorption of essential molecules as well as other physiological functions, such as ions exchange and water retention. To determine the role of Clr-f in renal epithelial cells, I generated a Clr-f-deficient mouse with the help of two of my previous lab colleagues. Importantly, chemical analysis on urine and serum samples from knockout and WT littermates indicated that Clr-f-deficient kidneys display a decreased filtration capacity. In particular, higher creatinine levels were detected in the Clr-f deficient serum. In addition, Clr-f-deficient mice appeared to have a lower fractional excretion of sodium (FENa) in their urine filtrates in comparison to WT excreted urine. Blood pressure measurements on the same mice at 12 and 24 weeks of age revealed a hypotensive phenotype in the Clr-f-deficient mice. Furthermore, pathological assessment of Clr-f-deficient kidneys exhibited moderate and aggravated lesions of the tubular epithelium along with marked glomerular mesangiolysis. Lastly, flow cytometry analysis on isolated lymphocytes from Clr-f-deficient and WT mice demonstrated comparable immune infiltrates between the two mouse genotypes. Altogether, our data shows that the absence of Clr-f results in the development of glomerular and tubular lesions in an immune-independent manner leading to an abnormal kidney function. Additionally, the disruption of NKR-P1B:Clr-b recognition system results in abnormal innate immune cell number and function in the mouse intestine. These novel findings sheds light on the important role of Clr-f in maintaining healthy kidney morphology and function, as well as the crucial role for NKR-P1B:Clr-b interactions in mediating intestinal homeostasis at steady and infected states.

Embryonic stem (ES) cells possess the remarkable ability to form cells and tissues from all three germ layers, a characteristic known as pluripotency. In particular, the generation of ES cell-derived hematopoietic cells could serve as an alternate source of hematopoietic stem cells for transplantation in place of bone marrow cells, which are limited by donor availability and high immunogenicity. The advantages of ES cell-derived hematopoietic cells over bone marrow cells include a greater proliferative capacity, which alleviates the problems of donor shortage, and low level expression of MHC antigens, which suggests immune privilege. However, it is unclear whether the immune system is capable of recognizing and rejecting ES cell-derived hematopoietic cells following transplantation. The observation that ES cell-derivatives express low levels of MHC class I, the predominant inhibitory ligand for NK cells, led us to hypothesize that ES cell-derived hematopoietic progenitor cells (HPC) are susceptible to NK cell-mediated killing. To test this hypothesis, we first generated HPCs from murine ES cells ectopically expressing HOXB4, a homeobox transcription factor that confers hematopoietic self-renewal, and confirmed that HPCs expressed low levels of MHC class I antigens. To specifically investigate the role of NK cells in regulating the in vivo engraftment of HPCs, we transplanted NK-replete Rag2-/- or NK-deficient Rag2-/-γc-/- mice with HPCs. We observed permanent HPC engraftment in Rag2-/-γc-/- mice; however, HPC engraftment was significantly reduced in Rag2-/- mice and was eventually eliminated over time. Bone marrow harvested from these animals showed that HPC-derived Lin-c-kit+ and Lin-Sca-1+ progenitor cells, critical progenitor cells for long-term hematopoietic engraftment, were deleted in Rag2-/- but not in Rag2-/-γc-/- mice. Next, we focused on the mechanism of NK cell activation by HPCs. Increased expression of the cytotoxic proteins Granzyme B and Perforin in the NK cells of HPC-transplanted Rag2-/- mice confirmed in vivo NK cell activation. Phenotypic analysis of HPCs revealed high level expression of H60, a ligand of the NK activating receptor NKG2D, and neutralization of H60 rescued HPCs from NK cell-mediated killing. Altogether, our results demonstrate that NK cells are a major barrier to the successful engraftment of ES cell-derived hematopoietic cells, underlining an important role of the innate immune system in regulating the long-term engraftment of ES cell derivatives.