La transplantation d'organe est le meilleur traitement en cas de défaillance terminale d'un organe vital. Cependant, la survie sur le long terme est limitée par la perte inexorable de la fonction des greffons. Cette dernière est attribuée à l'inflammation microvasculaire (1MV) causée par la réponse anticorps contre les alloantigènes (rejet humoral chronique (RHC)). En analysant une cohorte de 129 transplantés rénaux présentant de l'1MV sur une biopsie de greffon, nous avons trouvé que, dans la moitié des cas, les lésions n'étaient pas médiées par les anticorps. Chez ces patients, des études génétiques ont révélé une prévalence plus élevée de « mismatches » entre les molécules HLA de classe 1 (HLA-1) du donneur et les « Killer-cell immunoglobulin-receptors » (K1R) inhibiteurs des NK du receveur. Nous avons émis l'hypothèse que la nature allogénique de l'endothélium du greffon pouvait créer un « pseudo-missing-self ». De ce fait, les NK du receveur, exposés à des stimuli inflammatoires, ne reçoivent plus les signaux inhibiteurs transmis par le HLA-1 de la part des cellules endothéliales du donneur. Dans un modèle de co-culture de cellules endothéliales et de NK humains, nous avons démontré que l'absence d'un ligand HLA-1 du soi sur la cellule endothéliale peut activer les NK. Cette activation dépend de la voie mTOR dans les NK, qui peut être bloquée par la rapamycine, un inhibiteur de mTORC1 disponible en clinique. Enfin, nous avons confirmé l'existence de rejets NK induit par le « missing-self » et leur sensibilité à la rapamycine dans un modèle murin de transplantation cardiaque. Notre travail identifie un nouveau type de rejet chronique, exclusivement médié par l'immunité innée, les NK, ayant le même impact délétère sur la survie des greffons que le RHC. Cependant, alors qu'il n'y a pas de traitement disponible pour le RHC, les inhibiteurs de mTOR préviennent efficacement le développement de lésions dans un modèle murin de rejet vasculaire chronique induit par le « missing self » / Organ transplantation is the best treatment for terminal organ failure. However, long-term outcome of organ transplantation remains limited by inexorable loss of graft function, which the prevalent dogma links to the microvascular inflammation (MVI) triggered by the recipient's antibody response against alloantigens (antibody-mediated chronic rejection, AMR). Analysing a cohort of 129 renal transplant patients with MVI on graft biopsy, we found that, in half of the cases, histological lesions were not mediated by antibodies. In these patients, genetic studies revealed a higher prevalence of mismatches between donor HLA-I and inhibitory Killer-cell immunoglobulin-receptors (KIR) of recipient's NK cells. We hypothesized that the allogeneic nature of graft endothelium could create a "pseudo-missing self" situation, thereby the recipient's NK cells exposed to inflammatory stimuli would not receive HLA I-mediated inhibitory signals from donor endothelial cells. In co-culture experiments with human NK cells and endothelial cells, we demonstrated that the lack of self HLA-I on endothelial cells can activate NK. This activation triggers mTOR pathway in NK, which can be blocked by rapamycin, a commercially available inhibitor of mTORC1. Finally, we confirmed the existence of missing self-induced rejection and its sensitivity to mTOR inhibition in a murine heart transplantation model. Our work identifies a new type of chronic rejection, exclusively mediated by innate NK cells, with the same detrimental impact on graft survival as AMR. However, while no therapy is available for AMR, mTOR inhibitors efficiently prevent the development of lesions in murine models of NK cell-mediated chronic vascular rejection

The functions of the immune system include immunosurveillance of transformed cells, i.e., the ability to eliminate these cells before they become harmful to the organism. If the transformed cells succeed to escape the immune system surveillance, an oncological disease develops. The tumour immunotherapy aims to stimulate the immune system mechanisms to fight against the tumour. Lately, there's an interest in using NK cells in the immunotherapy of tumours. These cells appertain to the innate immune system and participate in immunosurveillance. When an NK cell encounters a target cell, its activation depends on the integration of signals from the surface activating and inhibiting receptors which bind ligands on the surface of the target cell. Upon activation, NK cell exhibits a cytotoxic response against the target cell. The use of NK cells in immunotherapy includes, among others, the testing of bispecific fusion proteins which can bind a tumour surface antigen by one part and NK cell activating receptor by the other part. Thus, these fusion proteins mediate a contact between both cells and trigger the cytotoxic response. This work presents a preparation of bispecific fusion proteins which consist of an activating ligand MICA (for the receptor NKG2D) or B7H6 (for the receptor NKp30), and a nanobody...

Il existe différents groupes de cellules lymphoïdes innées (ILC) qui ont été caractérisées en fonction des facteurs de transcriptions indispensables à leur différenciation et des cytokines qu’elles sécrètent. Les ILC1, dont font partie les cellules Natural Killer (NK), expriment T-bet et produisent de l’IFN-γ. Les ILC2 sont caractérisées par GATA-3 et sécrètent de l’IL-5 et de l’IL-13. Quant aux ILC3, elles ont été identifiées par leur sécrétion d’IL-17 et d’IL-22 ainsi que par l’expression de RORγt.Mon travail de thèse m’a amené à étudier différents aspects de la biologie des cellules NK et ILC3 : leur tolérance, leur homéostasie et leur plasticité.Les cellules NK jouent un rôle dans l’élimination de cellules cancéreuses et des cellules infectées par des bactéries et des virus. J’ai mis en évidence le rôle de la phosphatase SHP-1 (Src homology region 2 domain-containing phosphatase-1) dans les mécanismes de tolérance et d’activation des cellules NK. J’ai également montré que la protéine anti-apoptotique Bcl2 (B-cell lymphoma 2) est importante pour l’homéostasie des cellules NK. Seules les cellules en cycle cellulaire peuvent compenser l’absence de Bcl2, notamment du fait de l’augmentation de l’expression d’une autre protéine anti-apoptotique, Mcl1 (Myeloid Cell Leukemia 1). Les ILC3 sont des cellules principalement localisées dans l’intestin et qui peuvent être classées en différents groupes en fonction des marqueurs qu’elles expriment. J’ai montré qu’il existe une plasticité entre les différentes populations d’ILC3, et que cette plasticité est régulée par des facteurs environnementaux tel que le TGF-β et le ligand de Notch, DL1. / There are three groups of innate lymphoid cells (ILC), defined notably by the transcriptions factors essential to their differentiation and their cytokines secretion. ILC1, including natural killer (NK) cells, express T-bet and secrete IFN-γ. ILC2 are characterized by GATA3 expression and the production of IL-5 and IL-13. ILC3 secrete IL-17 and IL-22 and express RORγt.My PhD work dealt with different aspects of NK cells and ILC3: their tolerance, homeostasis and plasticity.NK cell are involved in killing tumor cells and bacteria- or virus-infected cells. I found that the phosphatase SHP-1 (Src homology region 2 domain-containing phosphatase-1) has a role in NK cell tolerance and activation.I also showed that the anti-apoptotic Bcl2 protein (B-cell lymphoma 2) is important for NK cell homeostasis. Only cycling NK cells could compensate the Bcl2 deficiency, due to the increase expression of another anti-apoptotic protein, Mcl1 (Myeloid Cell Leukemia 1).ILC3 are mainly located in the gut and are classified in different groups, depending on the markers that they expressed. I showed that there is plasticity between ILC3 populations and that this plasticity is regulated by environmental factors, including TGF-β and the Notch ligand, DL1.

Introduction: Sickle cell anemia (SCA) is one of the most common genetic disorders in the world. However, until recently, only the direct consequences of the deoxyHbS polymerization was used to explain the pathophysiology of the disease. Currently, it is known that the clinical repercussions of FA involve complex interactions between the erythrocyte, endothelium and leukocytes: cytokines secreted by inflammatory cells are involved in SCA crisis and in the maintenance of a systemic inflammatory status, suggesting that T cells (Helpers and Cytotoxics) and NK have a fundalmental role in the clinical phenomena of SCA. This study aims to evaluate the profile of T and NK lymphocytes in patients with AF and compare them with the profile of individuals with sickle cell trait and individuals without hemoglobinopathies. Materials and methods: Peripheral blood was collected from 13 individuals; 7 with SS hemoglobinopathy (SS group), 5 with sickle cell trait (AS group) and 5 normal (AA group). The lymphocytes isolation for analysis was performed using Ficoll-Hypaque solution. Immunophenotyping for the determination of lymphocyte subtypes was performed by flow cytometry, using eight-color cytometer and eight BD Biosciences antibodies. Data were analyzed using Flowjo software and tabulated in SPSS IBM 22.0. The results referring to the numerical variables were expressed through measures of central tendency. Results: A lower frequency of T lymphocytes and a greater frequency of NK cells were observed in sickle cell patients.The variation of TCD4 + found between the SCA and the AA group was significant (p = 0.04). Lower frequency tendency in patients of the SS group remained for B lymphocytes. A higher frequency of NK cells was observed in patients with sickle cell anemia (mean: group AA = 15.63%, group AS = 14.82% and group SS = 23.34%) with statistically significant variation. Conclusion: SCA patients present a lower frequency of CD4 + CD8 + T cells and TNK cells when compared with HbAS individuals and individuals without hemoglobinopathies. An increasing and progressive frequency of NK cells is observed between groups AA, AS and SS. We believe that further studies are needed to understand the role of these cells in the genesis of systemic inflammation of SCA. This understanding may contribute to the development of new therapeutic strategies. / INTRODUÇÃO: A anemia falciforme (AF) é uma das desordens genéticas mais comuns do mundo. Entretanto, até pouco tempo atrás, apenas as consequências diretas da polimerização da desoxiHbS explicava a fisiopatogenia da doença. Atualmente, sabe-se que as repercussões clíncas da AF envolvem interações complexas entre o eritrócito, endotélio e leucócitos: citocinas secretadas por células inflamatórias estão envolvidas nas crises e na manutenção de um status inflamatório sistêmico, o que sugere que as células T (auxiliares e citotóxicas) e NK têm papel fundalmental nos fenômenos clínicos da AF. Este estudo visa avaliar o perfil de linfócitos T e NK em portadores de AF e comparar com o perfil de indivíduos com traço falciforme e indivíduos sem hemoglobinopatias. MATERIAIS E MÉTODOS: Foi coletado sangue periférico de 17 indivíduos; 7 com hemoglobinopatia SS (grupo SS), 5 com traço falciforme (grupo AS) e 5 normais (grupo AA). Todos confirmados por eletroforese de hemoglobina. Amostras de pacientes hemotransfundidos 30 dias antes ou em uso de antiinflamatórios 2 dias antes da coleta foram excluídas. O isolamento dos linfócitos para análise foi realizado utilizando solução de Ficoll-Hypaque. A imunofenotipagem para determinação dos subtipos linfocitários foi realizada por citometria de fluxo, utilizando citômetro de oito cores e oito anticorpos da BD Biosciences. Os dados foram analisados com auxílio do software Flowjo e tabulados no SPSS IBM 22.0. Os resultados referentes às variáveis numéricas foram expressos através de medidas de tendência central: média e valores mínimos e máximos. RESULTADOS: Globalmente foi observada menor frequência de linfócitos T e maior frequência de células NK nos pacientes falcêmicos, com média de 31,2% de TCD4+ contra 43,47% do grupo AS e 45,37% do grupo AA. Para os linfócitos TCD8+, o grupo SS obteve média de 12,64% contra 17,1% do AS e 16,42% do AA. A variação de TCD4+ encontrada entre os pacientes AF e o grupo AA foi significativa (p=0,04). Tendência de menor frequência em pacientes do grupo SS se manteve para os linfócitos B. Foi observada maior frequência de células NK em pacientes portadores de anemia falciforme (média do grupo AA=8,83%; AS=11,2% e grupo SS=19,6%), respectivamente, com diferença significativa entre o grupo AA e o grupo SS (p=0,040). CONCLUSÃO: Portadores de AF apresentam tendência de menor frequência de linfócitos T, com diferença significativamente menor comparado ao portador de traço e o paciente portador de AF, para linfócitos T CD4+ verificou-se redução significativa deste subtipo celular entre grupo SS e AA. Neste estudo também foi evidenciado uma frequência crescente e progressiva de células NK entre os grupos AA, AS e SS. Acreditamos que mais estudos são necessários visando compreender o papel destas células na gênese da inflamação sistêmica da AF. Este entendimento possivelmente contribuirá para o desenvolvimento de novas estratégias terapêuticas. / Aracaju, SE

Cancer immunotherapy is an encompassing term referring to therapeutic strategies that aim to boost the immune system to fight cancer. These strategies include administering immune cells that have been altered to have greater anti-tumor activity or using biologics and small molecules that target immune components to also promote tumor clearance. Natural Killer (NK) cells are cells of the innate immune system that recognize and kill abnormal cells such as cancer cells and play an important role in the anti-tumor response. Because of their crucial role in tumor immunity, NK cells are prime targets for immunotherapies. Repurposing small molecule drugs is an attractive strategy to identify new immunotherapies from already approved drugs. Here, we screened 1,200 approved drugs from the Prestwick Chemical Library to identify drugs that increase NK cell cytotoxicity. We used a high-throughput luciferase-release cytotoxicity assay to measure the killing of the myeloid leukemia cell line, K562 cells expressing nano luciferase (NL) by NK92 cells, a human NK cell line. From the drug candidates identified from the screening assay, the antibiotic colistin sulfate increased cytotoxicity of the NK92 cell line and unstimulated human NK cells towards K562-NL cells. This increase in NK cytotoxicity was short-lived as pre-treating NK92 cells with colistin for 1 hour or 24 hours did not increase cytotoxicity. Also, we show pre-treating K562-NL target cells with colistin does not sensitize them to NK-mediated killing. Further studies are needed to uncover the mechanism of action of colistin, thus contributing to knowledge of fundamental NK cell biology regarding NK cell cytotoxicity which will aid in identifying additional small molecule drugs that enhance NK cell activity.

Impact of NKR-P1 polymorphism on Ly49 receptors expression in hybrid mouse strains (C57BL/6 x Balb/c, F10-12) Abstract Natural killer (NK) cells constitute the subpopulation of large granular lymphocytes which mediate spontaneous immune response against infected, transformed or allogeneic cells and thus represent an important component of the innate immunity. NK cells express a wide repertoir of surface receptors which can be either activating or inhibitory and which mediate NK cell recognition and regulation of cytolytic activity. NKR-P1 and Ly49 receptor families belong to the most important murine NK receptors. Both NKR-P1 and Ly49 families are members of C-type lectin-like superfamily of receptors encoded by natural killer gene complex (NKC) on chromosome 6 and include both activating and inhibitory members. The aim of this diploma thesis was to elucidate the impact of Nkr-p1c gene divergence on Ly49 receptors expression and to find out whether the Ly49 and Nkr-p1 gene clusters (which are localized on opposite ends of NKC) are inherited independently or whether the NKC domain is inherited as a complex. The second research interest was to illustrate the influence of the above mentioned divergence on cytotoxic activity of NK cells and tumor growth. In this study, inbred mouse strains C57BL/6 and Balb/c...

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Le virus de l’immunodéficience humaine ou VIH est l’agent qui cause le SIDA. Le VIH donne lieu à une dérégulation dans la production de certaines cytokines qui ont un rôle immunologique très important chez les patients infectés. L’IL-18, autrement nommé facteur inducteur d’IFN-γ, est une cytokine pro-inflammatoire qui affecte le système immunitaire de façon importante. Son activité est régulée par l’"IL-18 Binding Protein" (IL-18BP), une autre cytokine qui se lie avec l’IL-18 et inhibe son activité biologique. Des études ultérieures ont montré des niveaux élevés d’Il-18 chez les patients infectés par le VIH par rapport aux personnes saines. Cependant, aucune étude n’a été réalisée concernant la production d’IL-18BP chez ces patients. Due à sa relevance dans la régulation de l’IL-18, nous avons étudié l’effet de l’infection par le VIH sur l’équilibre entre ces deux facteurs et l’impact de cet équilibre sur l’homéostasie des cellules NK. Nous avons mesuré les taux de l’IL-18 et de l’IL-18BP circulantes dans les sérums des patients infectés par le VIH en les comparants avec le même nombre de personnes saines et séronégatives. Nous avons aussi déterminé le nombre total des différents sous-types de cellules NK et analysé l’activité des cellules NK (Natural Killer). Finalement nous avons cherché à déterminer si l’IL-18 pouvait induire l’apoptose des cellules NK en activant l’expression de Fas ligand. Nos résultats nous démontrent que les patients infectés par le VIH ont trois fois plus d’IL-18 que les donneurs sains. Cependant les niveaux d’IL-18BP sont plus bas chez les patients infectés comparés aux donneurs sains. Alors, le ratio IL-18/IL-18BP est augmenté chez les patients infectés, ce qui entraîne une grande quantité d’IL-18 libre et biologiquement active circulante dans leur organisme. Nos études démontrent que chez ces patients, les concentrations d’IL-18 sont en corrélation négative avec l’activité cytotoxique de leurs cellules NK. Nos études in vitro démontrent que le traitement des cellules NK par l’IL-18 induit de façon fratricide leur apoptose en augmentant l’expression de Fas ligand. Finalement, cette production non coordonnée de ces deux facteurs pourrait contribuer à une immunopathologie induite par l’IL-18 en entraînant une apoptose fratricide des cellules NK qui possèdent un rôle important dans la réponse antivirale. Le dérèglement de l’homéostasie des cellules NK pourrait donc contribuer à la pathogenèse induite par le VIH. / HIV-1, the causative agent of AIDS, induces a deregulated production of several immunologically important cytokines in the infected persons. One of these cytokines is IL-18: a powerful proinflammatory cytokine that can regulate both innate and adaptive immune responses. In vivo, its activity is tightly regulated by IL-18 Binding Protein (IL-18BP), another cytokine that specifically binds and neutralizes IL-18 with high affinity. Previous studies have shown that IL-18 concentrations are significantly increased in the circulation of HIV-infected AIDS patients compared to those in healthy people. However, it is not yet clear how the increased levels of this cytokine affect the development of AIDS in HIV infected persons. Furthermore, little is known concerning the production of IL-18 antagonist (IL-18BP) in these patients. These issues were addressed in the studies presented in this thesis. We measured levels of IL-18 and IL-18BP in the sera of HIV-infected patients by using commercial ELISA kits and compared them with the values obtained from a similar number of healthy HIV-seronegative persons. We also determined the absolute and total number of different NK cell subsets and NK cell activity in the peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) of these individuals. Finally we determined the effects of recombinant human IL-18 as well as of IL-18-rich sera from AIDS patients on cytolytic activity and survival of human NK cells. Our results show that sera from HIV- infected patients contain up to 3 fold higher levels of IL-18 compared to the sera from healthy people. However, levels of IL-18BP were lower in the infected individuals compared to the healthy ones. Consequently, IL-18/IL-18BP ratio is increased in the patients resulting in a further increase in the concentrations of biologically active IL-18 in the circulation of these patients. Our results show that the concentrations of IL-18 correlated inversely with NK cell numbers as well as with their cytolytic activity in the infected persons. These results suggested the involvement of IL-18 in the disappearance of NK cells that prompted us to determine the potential cytocidal effects of this cytokine on human NK cells. The results from our in vitro experiments show that recombinant human IL-18 and IL-18-rich sera from AIDS patients caused apoptosis in a human NK cell line as well as in primary human NK cells. Anti-FasL antagonist antibodies inhibited this cell death. In a series of experiments, we found that IL-18 enhances expression of FasL but does not affect the expression of Fas on human NK cells. In vitro IL-18 also stimulated transcription from human FasL promoter. Furthermore, the cytokine also enhanced susceptibility of NK cells to Fas-mediated death, as it decreased the expression of an anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-XL. Our study shows that enhanced IL-18 bioactivity in HIV-infected patients may contribute to the pathogenesis of AIDS by disrupting NK cell homoeostasis.

Le virus de l’immunodéficience humaine ou VIH est l’agent qui cause le SIDA. Le VIH donne lieu à une dérégulation dans la production de certaines cytokines qui ont un rôle immunologique très important chez les patients infectés. L’IL-18, autrement nommé facteur inducteur d’IFN-γ, est une cytokine pro-inflammatoire qui affecte le système immunitaire de façon importante. Son activité est régulée par l’"IL-18 Binding Protein" (IL-18BP), une autre cytokine qui se lie avec l’IL-18 et inhibe son activité biologique. Des études ultérieures ont montré des niveaux élevés d’Il-18 chez les patients infectés par le VIH par rapport aux personnes saines. Cependant, aucune étude n’a été réalisée concernant la production d’IL-18BP chez ces patients. Due à sa relevance dans la régulation de l’IL-18, nous avons étudié l’effet de l’infection par le VIH sur l’équilibre entre ces deux facteurs et l’impact de cet équilibre sur l’homéostasie des cellules NK. Nous avons mesuré les taux de l’IL-18 et de l’IL-18BP circulantes dans les sérums des patients infectés par le VIH en les comparants avec le même nombre de personnes saines et séronégatives. Nous avons aussi déterminé le nombre total des différents sous-types de cellules NK et analysé l’activité des cellules NK (Natural Killer). Finalement nous avons cherché à déterminer si l’IL-18 pouvait induire l’apoptose des cellules NK en activant l’expression de Fas ligand. Nos résultats nous démontrent que les patients infectés par le VIH ont trois fois plus d’IL-18 que les donneurs sains. Cependant les niveaux d’IL-18BP sont plus bas chez les patients infectés comparés aux donneurs sains. Alors, le ratio IL-18/IL-18BP est augmenté chez les patients infectés, ce qui entraîne une grande quantité d’IL-18 libre et biologiquement active circulante dans leur organisme. Nos études démontrent que chez ces patients, les concentrations d’IL-18 sont en corrélation négative avec l’activité cytotoxique de leurs cellules NK. Nos études in vitro démontrent que le traitement des cellules NK par l’IL-18 induit de façon fratricide leur apoptose en augmentant l’expression de Fas ligand. Finalement, cette production non coordonnée de ces deux facteurs pourrait contribuer à une immunopathologie induite par l’IL-18 en entraînant une apoptose fratricide des cellules NK qui possèdent un rôle important dans la réponse antivirale. Le dérèglement de l’homéostasie des cellules NK pourrait donc contribuer à la pathogenèse induite par le VIH. / HIV-1, the causative agent of AIDS, induces a deregulated production of several immunologically important cytokines in the infected persons. One of these cytokines is IL-18: a powerful proinflammatory cytokine that can regulate both innate and adaptive immune responses. In vivo, its activity is tightly regulated by IL-18 Binding Protein (IL-18BP), another cytokine that specifically binds and neutralizes IL-18 with high affinity. Previous studies have shown that IL-18 concentrations are significantly increased in the circulation of HIV-infected AIDS patients compared to those in healthy people. However, it is not yet clear how the increased levels of this cytokine affect the development of AIDS in HIV infected persons. Furthermore, little is known concerning the production of IL-18 antagonist (IL-18BP) in these patients. These issues were addressed in the studies presented in this thesis. We measured levels of IL-18 and IL-18BP in the sera of HIV-infected patients by using commercial ELISA kits and compared them with the values obtained from a similar number of healthy HIV-seronegative persons. We also determined the absolute and total number of different NK cell subsets and NK cell activity in the peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) of these individuals. Finally we determined the effects of recombinant human IL-18 as well as of IL-18-rich sera from AIDS patients on cytolytic activity and survival of human NK cells. Our results show that sera from HIV- infected patients contain up to 3 fold higher levels of IL-18 compared to the sera from healthy people. However, levels of IL-18BP were lower in the infected individuals compared to the healthy ones. Consequently, IL-18/IL-18BP ratio is increased in the patients resulting in a further increase in the concentrations of biologically active IL-18 in the circulation of these patients. Our results show that the concentrations of IL-18 correlated inversely with NK cell numbers as well as with their cytolytic activity in the infected persons. These results suggested the involvement of IL-18 in the disappearance of NK cells that prompted us to determine the potential cytocidal effects of this cytokine on human NK cells. The results from our in vitro experiments show that recombinant human IL-18 and IL-18-rich sera from AIDS patients caused apoptosis in a human NK cell line as well as in primary human NK cells. Anti-FasL antagonist antibodies inhibited this cell death. In a series of experiments, we found that IL-18 enhances expression of FasL but does not affect the expression of Fas on human NK cells. In vitro IL-18 also stimulated transcription from human FasL promoter. Furthermore, the cytokine also enhanced susceptibility of NK cells to Fas-mediated death, as it decreased the expression of an anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-XL. Our study shows that enhanced IL-18 bioactivity in HIV-infected patients may contribute to the pathogenesis of AIDS by disrupting NK cell homoeostasis.