L’asthme allergique est caractérisé par une réponse immune adaptative de type Th2 associée à une production des médiateurs pro Th2 tels que les chimiokines CCL17, CCL22 et CCL18. Les agents microbiens peuvent prévenir, aggraver ou sont soupçonnés d’induire l’asthme allergique, par des mécanismes encore incomplètement élucidés qui font intervenir des récepteurs de l’immunité innée capables de les reconnaître. NOD1 est un des récepteurs impliqués, c’est un récepteur intracellulaire qui reconnaît un motif particulier de la paroi de certaines bactéries. IL est capable de favoriser une réponse systémique de type Th2.Cependant aucune étude expérimentale ne s’est intéressée à son rôle dans cette pathologie. Le but de notre travail a été double, tout d’abord, évaluer l’effet de l'agoniste de NOD1 sur la réponse Th2 dans un modèle expérimental d’asthme, et étudier la contribution potentielle des cellules dendritiques dans ce processus, et d’autre part, évaluer les relations directes entre la chimiokine CCL18 et une cellule de l’immunité innée la cellule dendritique (DC) sur la réponse adaptative. Dans la première étude, dans un modèle expérimental d’asthme allergique, nous avons montré que l’administration de l’agoniste de NOD1, au moment de la sensibilisation à des souris sauvages, amplifie la réponse Th2 au niveau des poumons. Cette réponse est caractérisée par une augmentation de la production des chimiokines pro Th2 (CCL17 et CCL22). L’amplification de la réponse inflammatoire pulmonaire de type Th2 est reconstituée par le transfert adoptif de DCs de moelle osseuse (BM-DC) stimulées avec de l’OVA combiné à l’agoniste de NOD1. Par contre les BM-DCs provenant de souris déficientes en CCL17 sont incapables d’amplifier cette réponse. In vitro, les BM-DC murines et les DC humaines (dérivées de monocytes) produisent des quantités importantes de CCL17 et CCL22 en réponse à l’agoniste de NOD1. De plus, les DCs humaines stimulées favorisent la polarisation des cellules T vers un profil Th2. Ces résultats montrent que l’agoniste de NOD1 amplifie la réponse Th2 dans l’asthme allergique, par le biais d’une production de chimiokine pro Th2 (CCL17) par la cellule dendritique, mettant en évidence un nouvel aspect de la fonctionnalité de NOD1. La seconde étude a consisté à évaluer l’effet direct de CCL18, une chimiokine pro Th2 sur les cellules de l’immunité innée, les cellules dendritiques. La différenciation de monocytes de sujets sains en présence de GM-SCF et CCL18 conduit au développement de DCs de phénotype semi-mature, exprimant le CCR7, produisant de l'IL10 et l'enzyme 2,3-indoleamine dioxygenase. Ces DCs induisent le développent de Lc T régulateurs de type Tr1 produisant de l’IL-10 et capables d'inhiber la prolifération de Lc T effecteurs par un mécanisme cytokine dépendant. Lorsque les monocytes proviennent de patients allergiques, l'effet tolérogène de CCL18 est perdu en liaison avec la diminution de la fixation de CCL18 à son récepteur putatif. Ces résultats suggèrent un défaut de régulation chez les sujets allergiques qui pourrait contribuer au défaut de tolérance observé chez les sujets allergiques. Ces données font du CCL18 et de son récepteur putatif des cibles thérapeutiques potentielles.L'ensemble de ces résultats mettent en évidence le rôle important des chimiokines et de leurs interactions avec les cellules dendritiques dans la déviation de la réponse immune en amont et en aval de celle ci. / In the first study, our results show that in vivo, NOD1 agonist used as an adjuvant exacerbated the pulmonary Th2 response, as well as the production of the pro Th2 chemokines CCL17 and CCL22. The exacerbation of the Th2 pulmonary response was recapitulated by adoptive transfer of NOD1-stimulated bone marrow derived DCs from wild type but not CCL17- deficient mice. Both purified murine bone marrow derived DCs, and human monocyte derived DCs stimulated in vitro with NOD1 agonist exhibited an increased production of CCL17 and CCL22. Moreover, NOD1-stimulated human DCs favored T cell polarization toward a Th2 profile. Altogether these data uncover a previously unrecognized effect of NOD1, which exacerbates allergic asthma through a direct effect on DCs by the induction of the pro Th2 chemokine CCL17.In the second study our results show that the differentiation of monocytes from healthy subjects in the presence of GM-SCF and CCL18 led to the development of DCs with a semi-mature phenotype, with intermediate levels of costimulatory and MHC class II molecules, increased CCR7 expression, which induced in coculture with allogenic naive T cells, an increase in IL-10 production. The generated T cells were able to suppress the proliferation of effector CD4+CD25- cells, through a cytokine dependent mechanism, and exhibited characteristics of type 1 regulatory T cells. The generation of tolerogenic DCs by CCL18 was dependent upon the production of indoleamine 2,3-dioxigenase through an IL-10 mediated mechanism. Surprisingly, when DCs originated from allergic patients, the tolerogenic effect of CCL18 was lost in relation with a decreased binding of CCL18 to its putative receptor. This study is the first to define a chemokine able to generate tolerogenic DCs. However, this function was absent in allergic donors, and may participate to the decreased tolerance observed in allergic diseases. Our data define CCL18 and its putative receptor as potential therapeutic targets.Altogether these results underline the importance of chemokines in the deviation of the immune response.

NOD1 and NOD2 (nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-containing proteins 1 and 2) are related innate immune receptors responsible for initiating a response to bacterial infection. They belong to a class of receptors known as Pattern Recognition Receptors (PRRs), which are germline encoded immune receptors that mediate various innate immune responses. These receptors recognize conserved microbial motifs known as Pathogen-Associated Molecular Patterns (PAMPs). The PRR-PAMP paradigm forms the bedrock of how innate immunity is understood today. As two of the first intracellular PRRs discovered, NOD1 and NOD2 came to define an entire subclass of PRRs, the NOD-like receptors (NLRs). PRRs relay their signals through protein:protein interaction motifs that typically adopt a characteristic Death Domain (DD) fold. NOD1 and NOD2 signal through their respective CAspase Recruitment Domains (CARDs), which are part of a DD subfamily. The CARDs of NOD1 and NOD2 interact with multiple downstream effectors and are thus situated at a key point for regulation and coordination of NOD1 and NOD2 signaling. To better understand this regulation, I structurally and functionally characterized interactions made by the CARDs of NOD1 and NOD2. Receptor Interacting Protein kinase 2 (RIP2) is an effector of both NOD1 and NOD2 that activates the NF-ΚB pathway to elicit an inflammatory response. I discovered a new binding interaction between the CARDs of NOD1 and NOD2 and ubiquitin. Furthermore, I elucidated a role for this interaction by showing that ubiquitin binds NOD1 and NOD2 CARDs competitively with the CARD of RIP2. Through biophysical and biochemical investigation, I identified mutants of NOD1 CARD that did not bind ubiquitin and were thus insensitive to its competitive effect on RIP2 binding. Utilizing this mutant in functional studies defined ubiquitin as a negative regulator of NOD1 signaling. Characterizing NOD1 allowed rational design of mutations that uncovered a similar role for ubiquitin in the NOD2 pathway. This introduces the potential for broader application of these findings in other DD-mediated pathways. NOD1 and NOD2 also bind the autophagy protein ATG16L. I investigated the molecular mechanisms of this interaction and found that NOD1 and NOD2 bind ATG16L through their CARDs. I also found that the domain on ATG16L responsible for binding NOD1 and NOD2 is the C-terminal WD40 Β-propeller. Furthermore, the CARD:Β-propeller interaction is sufficient to mediate interaction between NOD1 or NOD2 and ATG16L. The finding that the ATG16L Β-propeller also binds ubiquitin leaves open the possibility that ubiquitin regulates pathway selection by NOD1 and NOD2. Together, these studies advance our understanding of NOD1 and NOD2 signaling and lay the groundwork for further mechanistic investigations into coordination of inflammatory and autophagic signaling pathways by the immune system in general.

Inflammation can be initiated by an innate immune sensor, followed by activation of a signal mediator, resulting in control of immune response by a signal regulator. Mammalian nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain protein 1 (Nod1) and Nod2 initiate host innate immune response by recognition of specific bacterial molecules, resulting in the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and anti-microbial peptides. A candidate sequence of chicken Nod1 (ChNod1) was identified with no current evidence of ChNod2. Stimulation of transiently overexpressed ChNod1 and its mutants with mammalian Nod-specific ligands was not conclusive of the function of ChNod1 most likely due to self-activation of ChNod1. In vitro studies showed no significant difference in expression of Nod1, its signaling molecules and pro-inflammatory cytokines in stimulated chicken mononuclear cells with synthetic ligands for mammalian Nod1 or Nod2. A signal mediator, macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) inhibits the random migration of macrophages. Chemotaxis assay using recombinant ChMIF (rChMIF) revealed a substantial decrease in migration of macrophages. qRT-PCR analysis revealed that the presence of rChMIF enhanced levels of IL-1β and iNOS during monocytes stimulation with LPS. Additionally, Con A-stimulated lymphocytes exhibited enhanced IFN-γ and IL-2 transcripts in the presence of rChMIF. IL-22, which may act as a signal regulator, is an important effector of activated Th1 and Th17 as well as natural killer cells during inflammation. Recombinant ChIL-22 alone did not have an impact on chicken embryo kidney epithelial cells (CKECs); however, co-stimulation of CKECs with LPS and rChIL-22 enhanced the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and anti-microbial peptides. Furthermore, rChIL-22 alone stimulated acute phase reactants in chicken embryo liver cells. These effects of rChIL-22 were abolished by addition of rChIL22 binding protein. Taken together, these results indicate an important role of ChIL-22 on epithelial cells and hepatocytes during inflammation. In this project, we identified and characterized the avian inflammatory mediators ChNod1, ChMIF, and ChIL-22. Studying each of their biological function in avian inflammation, especially under pathogenic challenges in epithelial tissues will provide a foundation for understanding the role of these inflammatory mediators in mucosal immunity. / Ph. D.

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento CientÃfico e TecnolÃgico / O cÃncer colorretal (CCR) Ã uma das neoplasias mais prevalentes em todo o mundo, sendo uma das principais causas de Ãbito por cÃncer. Dentre as drogas utilizadas como primeira linha no tratamento do CCR e do CCR metastÃtico hepÃtico, o irinotecano apresenta destaque pelo impacto sobre o aumento da sobrevida dos pacientes. Contudo, o surgimento de efeitos colaterais associados ao irinotecano (IRI), como a mucosite intestinal (MI), tem impactado negativamente no curso terapÃutico do paciente, observando-se atrasos nos ciclos subsequentes de quimioterapia, reduÃÃo de doses e, por vezes, interrupÃÃo do tratamento. A MI e a diarrÃia grave sÃo efeitos colaterais frequentes que pode atingir de 15-25% dos pacientes em quimioterapia. Objetivos: Estudar os parÃmetros funcionais da barreira intestinal e os mecanismos envolvidos na mucosite intestinal induzida pelo Irinotecano e seu metabÃlito ativo, SN-38. MÃtodos: Camundongos C57BL/6 machos (WT), 20-25g, foram divididos em grupos (n=6-8), administrados por 4 dias com salina (5 mL/Kg, i.p) ou com irinotecano (IRI, 75 mg/Kg, i.p). Os animais foram analisados no 5Â dia [D5] ou 7Â dia [D7] quanto ao peso corpÃreo, escores de diarreia, contagem de leucÃcitos. ApÃs sacrifÃcio, uma amostra de intestino foi coletada para dosagem de mieloperoxidase, anÃlise histopatolÃgica, morfomÃtrica, e imunohistoquÃmica para TLR4. Adicionalmente, realizou-se o teste de permeabilidade e perfusÃo intestinal in vivo. Avaliou-se tambÃm a bacteremia e a translocaÃÃo bacteriana em linfonodo mesentÃrico e fÃgado. Em adiÃÃo, a participaÃÃo de receptores Toll-like 2 (TLR2), 4 (TLR4) e 9 (TLR9) da proteÃna adaptadora MyD88 e NOD1 na mucosite intestinal foi verificada pelo uso de camundongos knockout com deleÃÃo gÃnica especÃfica para aqueles receptores e seus respectivos camundongos selvagens (WT). Adicionalmente, realizou-se a avaliaÃÃo dos efeitos in vivo e in vitro do SN-38. Os dados foram analisados com ANOVA/teste de Bonferroni ou Kruskal Wallis/teste de Dunn. P<0,05 foi aceito. (Protocolo CEPA 99/10). Resultados: A injeÃÃo de IRI causou uma significativa (P<0,05) perda ponderal, leucopenia e diarreia, associada a um aumento da infiltraÃÃo de neutrÃfilos no jejuno, Ãleo e pulmÃo, com alteraÃÃes morfomÃtricas e uma intensa destruiÃÃo da arquitetura dos vilos e criptas, apoptose celular em camundongos WT versus animais injetados com salina. AlÃm disso, o IRI induz uma alteraÃÃo da barreira intestinal evidenciada pela diminuiÃÃo da excreÃÃo de lactulose, aliado a um aumento significativo (P<0,05) da secreÃÃo intestinal de sÃdio, potÃssio e cloreto. Os camundongos injetados com Irinotecano apresentaram bacteremia e translocaÃÃo bacteriana (P<0,05) no linfonodo mesentÃrico e fÃgado, quando comparados ao grupo salina. A identificaÃÃo bioquÃmica das bactÃrias translocadas evidenciou a presenÃa de Escherichia coli (75%), Citrobacter sp. (17,2%), BactÃrias Gram-Negativas NÃo-Fermentadoras e Pseudomona aeruginosa (18%) no grupo injetado com Irinotecano, aliado a um significativo aumento (P<0,05) da imunomarcaÃÃo para TLR4 no intestino de animais injetados com IRI D5 (4[3-4]) e D7 (4[3-4]) versus o grupo salina (1,5[1-4]). Observamos que a deleÃÃo gÃnica para o receptor TLR2 e a proteÃna adaptadora MyD88, mas nÃo para TLR4 ou TLR9, preveniram a perda ponderal e o dano funcional, relacionado aos eventos de diarreia, bem como as alteraÃÃes morfomÃtricas, histopatolÃgicas, infiltraÃÃo de neutrÃfilos e bacteremia induzida pelo Irinotecano versus o grupo WT injetado com IRI (P<0,05). Entretanto, a deficiÃncia genÃtica de NOD1 conferiu uma reduzida diarreia, sem reverter o dano prÃ-inflamatÃrio induzido pelo IRI. Adicionalmente, o SN-38 causou um aumento da atividade de mieloperoxidase (P<0,05), sem alterar a secreÃÃo intestinal na alÃa isolada de camundongos (P>0.05) versus o grupo injetado com salina. O SN38 foi capaz de induzir alteraÃÃes morfolÃgicas nas cÃlulas intestinais de ratos (IEC-6). ConclusÃo: O IRI induziu alteraÃÃo dos parÃmetros funcionais, detectadas pelo teste de permeabilidade e de perfusÃo intestinal. O IRI induziu uma bacteremia e translocaÃÃo bacteriana para ÃrgÃos perifÃricos. AlÃm disso, a deficiÃncia do receptor Toll-like do tipo 2, e da proteÃna MyD88 previniu o dano intestinal e a diarreia induzida pelo IRI. Contudo, a deficiÃncia de receptores NOD1 somente melhorou a diarreia. Adicionalmente, o SN38 foi associado a um aumento da infiltraÃÃo de neutrÃfilo, sem alteraÃÃo da secreÃÃo intestinal no modelo de alÃa isolada. / The Colorectal Cancer (CRC) is one of the most prevalent neoplastic diseases in the world and is one leading cause of death. Irinotecan is a drug used as first line treatment for CRC and its liver metastases and has markedly improved the overall survival of patients. However, irinotecan-related side-effects, which include intestinal mucositis (IM), have impacted negatively on therapeutic outcome, leading to delayed chemotherapy cycles, dose reductions and treatment interruption. IM and life-threatening diarrhea may affect up to 15-25% of patients under irinotecan-based cancer chemotherapy regimens. Aims: To study the intestinal barrier function and the mechanisms involved in the IM induced by irinotecan and its active metabolite, SN-38. Methods: Male C57BL/6 mice (WT, n=6-8) were divided into groups and injected with saline (5 mL/kg, i.p.) or irinotecan (IRI, 75 mg/kg, i.p.) for 4 days. Body weight, diarrhea and blood leukocyte count were assessed on days 5 [D5] and 7 [D7]. Following euthanasia, intestinal samples were collected for histopathology, morphometry, mieloperoxidase and imunohistochemistry assays. In addition, in vivo intestinal permeability and perfusion tests were performed. Bacteremia and bacterial translocation to mesenteric lymph node and liver were further carried out. Additionally, the participation of toll-like receptors 2 (TLR2), 4 (TLR4) and 9 (TLR9), the adaptor protein MyD88 and NOD1 receptor in the pathogenesis of IM were investigated by the use of WT mice and knockout with target gene disruptions. Furthermore, the in vivo and in vitro effects of SN-38 were studied. Data analysis was performed with ANOVA/Bonferroniâs test or Kruskal Wallis/Dunnâs test. P<0,05 was accepted. (CEPA 99/10). Results. IRI-injected WT mice presented a marked (P<0.05) weight loss, leukopenia, diarrhea, increased neutrophil infiltration in lung, jejunum, ileum associated with villi and crypt morphologic alteration and apoptotic cell death versus saline-administered mice. Besides, reduced lactulose renal excretion, gut secretion of sodium, potassium and chloride evidenced intestinal barrier dysfunction in IRI-injected WT mice versus saline-administered control mice (P<0.05). Bacterermia and bacterial translocation to mesenteric lymph node and liver were also observed in the IRI group. Biochemical identification of translocating bacteria revealed the presence of Escherichia coli (75%), Citrobacter sp. (17.2%), non-fermenting gram-negative bactÃria and Pseudomona aeruginosa (18%) in blood samples of IRI-injected mice. In addition, an increased TLR4 imunoexpression was detected in that group (IRI D5: 4[3-4] and D7: 4[3-4]) when compared with saline control (1.5[1-4]). Gene deletion to TLR2 and MyD88, but not to TLR4 or TLR9, prevented weight loss, diarrhea, intestinal morphometric alterations, neutrophil infiltration in the gut and bacteremia development versus the IRI-injeted WT group (P<0.05). However, NOD1 deletion was protective only against IRI-induced diarrhea without affecting the inflammatory infiltration. Furthermore, SN-38 promoted a marked neutrophil infiltration in ileum loops (P<0.05) but did not induce intestinal secretion of liquids (P>0.05) versus saline injected mice. Besides, cultured intestinal cells (IEC-6) incubated with SN-38 presented morphological changes in comparison to DMEN-cultured cells. Conclusions: IRI induced functional alterations in the gut and also bacteremia and bacterial translocation to peripheral organs. TLR2 and MyD88 deficiency prevented IRI-related intestinal damage and the diarrhea. However, NOD1 deficiency was protective only against diarrhea development. In addition, SN-38 might be responsible for the intestinal inflammatory reaction without affecting gut secretion of liquids.

WONG, Deysi Viviana Tenazoa. Mediação dos receptores TLR2, NOD1, e da proteína MYD88 na modulação da mucosite intestinal induzida pelo irinotecano. 2013. 198 f. Tese (Doutorado em Farmacologia) - Universidade Federal do Ceará. Faculdade de Medicina, Fortaleza, 2013. / Submitted by denise santos (denise.santos@ufc.br) on 2015-02-19T14:28:30Z No. of bitstreams: 1 2013_dis_dvtwong.pdf: 7706778 bytes, checksum: 49ef5f002021c0ff998f1315d44d798a (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by denise santos(denise.santos@ufc.br) on 2015-02-19T14:31:08Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 2013_dis_dvtwong.pdf: 7706778 bytes, checksum: 49ef5f002021c0ff998f1315d44d798a (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2015-02-19T14:31:08Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2013_dis_dvtwong.pdf: 7706778 bytes, checksum: 49ef5f002021c0ff998f1315d44d798a (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013 / The Colorectal Cancer (CRC) is one of the most prevalent neoplastic diseases in the world and is one leading cause of death. Irinotecan is a drug used as first line treatment for CRC and its liver metastases and has markedly improved the overall survival of patients. However, irinotecan-related side-effects, which include intestinal mucositis (IM), have impacted negatively on therapeutic outcome, leading to delayed chemotherapy cycles, dose reductions and treatment interruption. IM and life-threatening diarrhea may affect up to 15-25% of patients under irinotecan-based cancer chemotherapy regimens. Aims: To study the intestinal barrier function and the mechanisms involved in the IM induced by irinotecan and its active metabolite, SN-38. Methods: Male C57BL/6 mice (WT, n=6-8) were divided into groups and injected with saline (5 mL/kg, i.p.) or irinotecan (IRI, 75 mg/kg, i.p.) for 4 days. Body weight, diarrhea and blood leukocyte count were assessed on days 5 [D5] and 7 [D7]. Following euthanasia, intestinal samples were collected for histopathology, morphometry, mieloperoxidase and imunohistochemistry assays. In addition, in vivo intestinal permeability and perfusion tests were performed. Bacteremia and bacterial translocation to mesenteric lymph node and liver were further carried out. Additionally, the participation of toll-like receptors 2 (TLR2), 4 (TLR4) and 9 (TLR9), the adaptor protein MyD88 and NOD1 receptor in the pathogenesis of IM were investigated by the use of WT mice and knockout with target gene disruptions. Furthermore, the in vivo and in vitro effects of SN-38 were studied. Data analysis was performed with ANOVA/Bonferroni’s test or Kruskal Wallis/Dunn’s test. P<0,05 was accepted. (CEPA 99/10). Results. IRI-injected WT mice presented a marked (P<0.05) weight loss, leukopenia, diarrhea, increased neutrophil infiltration in lung, jejunum, ileum associated with villi and crypt morphologic alteration and apoptotic cell death versus saline-administered mice. Besides, reduced lactulose renal excretion, gut secretion of sodium, potassium and chloride evidenced intestinal barrier dysfunction in IRI-injected WT mice versus saline-administered control mice (P<0.05). Bacterermia and bacterial translocation to mesenteric lymph node and liver were also observed in the IRI group. Biochemical identification of translocating bacteria revealed the presence of Escherichia coli (75%), Citrobacter sp. (17.2%), non-fermenting gram-negative bactéria and Pseudomona aeruginosa (18%) in blood samples of IRI-injected mice. In addition, an increased TLR4 imunoexpression was detected in that group (IRI D5: 4[3-4] and D7: 4[3-4]) when compared with saline control (1.5[1-4]). Gene deletion to TLR2 and MyD88, but not to TLR4 or TLR9, prevented weight loss, diarrhea, intestinal morphometric alterations, neutrophil infiltration in the gut and bacteremia development versus the IRI-injeted WT group (P<0.05). However, NOD1 deletion was protective only against IRI-induced diarrhea without affecting the inflammatory infiltration. Furthermore, SN-38 promoted a marked neutrophil infiltration in ileum loops (P<0.05) but did not induce intestinal secretion of liquids (P>0.05) versus saline injected mice. Besides, cultured intestinal cells (IEC-6) incubated with SN-38 presented morphological changes in comparison to DMEN-cultured cells. Conclusions: IRI induced functional alterations in the gut and also bacteremia and bacterial translocation to peripheral organs. TLR2 and MyD88 deficiency prevented IRI-related intestinal damage and the diarrhea. However, NOD1 deficiency was protective only against diarrhea development. In addition, SN-38 might be responsible for the intestinal inflammatory reaction without affecting gut secretion of liquids. / O câncer colorretal (CCR) é uma das neoplasias mais prevalentes em todo o mundo, sendo uma das principais causas de óbito por câncer. Dentre as drogas utilizadas como primeira linha no tratamento do CCR e do CCR metastático hepático, o irinotecano apresenta destaque pelo impacto sobre o aumento da sobrevida dos pacientes. Contudo, o surgimento de efeitos colaterais associados ao irinotecano (IRI), como a mucosite intestinal (MI), tem impactado negativamente no curso terapêutico do paciente, observando-se atrasos nos ciclos subsequentes de quimioterapia, redução de doses e, por vezes, interrupção do tratamento. A MI e a diarréia grave são efeitos colaterais frequentes que pode atingir de 15-25% dos pacientes em quimioterapia. Objetivos: Estudar os parâmetros funcionais da barreira intestinal e os mecanismos envolvidos na mucosite intestinal induzida pelo Irinotecano e seu metabólito ativo, SN-38. Métodos: Camundongos C57BL/6 machos (WT), 20-25g, foram divididos em grupos (n=6-8), administrados por 4 dias com salina (5 mL/Kg, i.p) ou com irinotecano (IRI, 75 mg/Kg, i.p). Os animais foram analisados no 5º dia [D5] ou 7º dia [D7] quanto ao peso corpóreo, escores de diarreia, contagem de leucócitos. Após sacrifício, uma amostra de intestino foi coletada para dosagem de mieloperoxidase, análise histopatológica, morfométrica, e imunohistoquímica para TLR4. Adicionalmente, realizou-se o teste de permeabilidade e perfusão intestinal in vivo. Avaliou-se também a bacteremia e a translocação bacteriana em linfonodo mesentérico e fígado. Em adição, a participação de receptores Toll-like 2 (TLR2), 4 (TLR4) e 9 (TLR9) da proteína adaptadora MyD88 e NOD1 na mucosite intestinal foi verificada pelo uso de camundongos knockout com deleção gênica específica para aqueles receptores e seus respectivos camundongos selvagens (WT). Adicionalmente, realizou-se a avaliação dos efeitos in vivo e in vitro do SN-38. Os dados foram analisados com ANOVA/teste de Bonferroni ou Kruskal Wallis/teste de Dunn. P<0,05 foi aceito. (Protocolo CEPA 99/10). Resultados: A injeção de IRI causou uma significativa (P<0,05) perda ponderal, leucopenia e diarreia, associada a um aumento da infiltração de neutrófilos no jejuno, íleo e pulmão, com alterações morfométricas e uma intensa destruição da arquitetura dos vilos e criptas, apoptose celular em camundongos WT versus animais injetados com salina. Além disso, o IRI induz uma alteração da barreira intestinal evidenciada pela diminuição da excreção de lactulose, aliado a um aumento significativo (P<0,05) da secreção intestinal de sódio, potássio e cloreto. Os camundongos injetados com Irinotecano apresentaram bacteremia e translocação bacteriana (P<0,05) no linfonodo mesentérico e fígado, quando comparados ao grupo salina. A identificação bioquímica das bactérias translocadas evidenciou a presença de Escherichia coli (75%), Citrobacter sp. (17,2%), Bactérias Gram-Negativas Não-Fermentadoras e Pseudomona aeruginosa (18%) no grupo injetado com Irinotecano, aliado a um significativo aumento (P<0,05) da imunomarcação para TLR4 no intestino de animais injetados com IRI D5 (4[3-4]) e D7 (4[3-4]) versus o grupo salina (1,5[1-4]). Observamos que a deleção gênica para o receptor TLR2 e a proteína adaptadora MyD88, mas não para TLR4 ou TLR9, preveniram a perda ponderal e o dano funcional, relacionado aos eventos de diarreia, bem como as alterações morfométricas, histopatológicas, infiltração de neutrófilos e bacteremia induzida pelo Irinotecano versus o grupo WT injetado com IRI (P<0,05). Entretanto, a deficiência genética de NOD1 conferiu uma reduzida diarreia, sem reverter o dano pró-inflamatório induzido pelo IRI. Adicionalmente, o SN-38 causou um aumento da atividade de mieloperoxidase (P<0,05), sem alterar a secreção intestinal na alça isolada de camundongos (P>0.05) versus o grupo injetado com salina. O SN38 foi capaz de induzir alterações morfológicas nas células intestinais de ratos (IEC-6). Conclusão: O IRI induziu alteração dos parâmetros funcionais, detectadas pelo teste de permeabilidade e de perfusão intestinal. O IRI induziu uma bacteremia e translocação bacteriana para órgãos periféricos. Além disso, a deficiência do receptor Toll-like do tipo 2, e da proteína MyD88 previniu o dano intestinal e a diarreia induzida pelo IRI. Contudo, a deficiência de receptores NOD1 somente melhorou a diarreia. Adicionalmente, o SN38 foi associado a um aumento da infiltração de neutrófilo, sem alteração da secreção intestinal no modelo de alça isolada.

L'asthme allergique est caractérisé par une réponse immune adaptative de type Th2 associée à une production des médiateurs pro Th2 tels que les chimiokines CCL17, CCL22 et CCL18. Les agents microbiens peuvent prévenir, aggraver ou sont soupçonnés d'induire l'asthme allergique, par des mécanismes encore incomplètement élucidés qui font intervenir des récepteurs de l'immunité innée capables de les reconnaître. NOD1 est un des récepteurs impliqués, c'est un récepteur intracellulaire qui reconnaît un motif particulier de la paroi de certaines bactéries. IL est capable de favoriser une réponse systémique de type Th2.Cependant aucune étude expérimentale ne s'est intéressée à son rôle dans cette pathologie. Le but de notre travail a été double, tout d'abord, évaluer l'effet de l'agoniste de NOD1 sur la réponse Th2 dans un modèle expérimental d'asthme, et étudier la contribution potentielle des cellules dendritiques dans ce processus, et d'autre part, évaluer les relations directes entre la chimiokine CCL18 et une cellule de l'immunité innée la cellule dendritique (DC) sur la réponse adaptative. Dans la première étude, dans un modèle expérimental d'asthme allergique, nous avons montré que l'administration de l'agoniste de NOD1, au moment de la sensibilisation à des souris sauvages, amplifie la réponse Th2 au niveau des poumons. Cette réponse est caractérisée par une augmentation de la production des chimiokines pro Th2 (CCL17 et CCL22). L'amplification de la réponse inflammatoire pulmonaire de type Th2 est reconstituée par le transfert adoptif de DCs de moelle osseuse (BM-DC) stimulées avec de l'OVA combiné à l'agoniste de NOD1. Par contre les BM-DCs provenant de souris déficientes en CCL17 sont incapables d'amplifier cette réponse. In vitro, les BM-DC murines et les DC humaines (dérivées de monocytes) produisent des quantités importantes de CCL17 et CCL22 en réponse à l'agoniste de NOD1. De plus, les DCs humaines stimulées favorisent la polarisation des cellules T vers un profil Th2. Ces résultats montrent que l'agoniste de NOD1 amplifie la réponse Th2 dans l'asthme allergique, par le biais d'une production de chimiokine pro Th2 (CCL17) par la cellule dendritique, mettant en évidence un nouvel aspect de la fonctionnalité de NOD1. La seconde étude a consisté à évaluer l'effet direct de CCL18, une chimiokine pro Th2 sur les cellules de l'immunité innée, les cellules dendritiques. La différenciation de monocytes de sujets sains en présence de GM-SCF et CCL18 conduit au développement de DCs de phénotype semi-mature, exprimant le CCR7, produisant de l'IL10 et l'enzyme 2,3-indoleamine dioxygenase. Ces DCs induisent le développent de Lc T régulateurs de type Tr1 produisant de l'IL-10 et capables d'inhiber la prolifération de Lc T effecteurs par un mécanisme cytokine dépendant. Lorsque les monocytes proviennent de patients allergiques, l'effet tolérogène de CCL18 est perdu en liaison avec la diminution de la fixation de CCL18 à son récepteur putatif. Ces résultats suggèrent un défaut de régulation chez les sujets allergiques qui pourrait contribuer au défaut de tolérance observé chez les sujets allergiques. Ces données font du CCL18 et de son récepteur putatif des cibles thérapeutiques potentielles.L'ensemble de ces résultats mettent en évidence le rôle important des chimiokines et de leurs interactions avec les cellules dendritiques dans la déviation de la réponse immune en amont et en aval de celle ci.

La prévalence de l’asthme a doublé dans les pays occidentaux depuis environ 1980. Une croissance alarmante qui fait face aux changements de mode de vie : hygiène (l’exposition à des agents infectieux), alimentation, ou encore pollution. Ces éléments sont des co-facteurs de risque, potentiellement responsables de l’installation de l’asthme ou de son aggravation. Cependant aucun mécanisme clair n’est déterminé à ce jour. Ce travail de thèse s’est focalisé sur le rôle des protagonistes centraux de la réponse immune, les populations lymphoïdes innées et adaptatives, dans l’exacerbation de l’asthme par ces différents co-facteurs. L’obésité est associée à une prévalence accrue d’asthme. Récemment, les cellules lymphoïdes innées (ILC) ont été impliquées dans ces pathologies. L’axe principal de mon travail a été de caractériser la contribution des lymphocytes T comparativement aux ILC dans un modèle murin d’exacerbation de l’asthme induit par des allergènes d’acariens liée à l'obésité. Un régime riche en graisse aboutit à l’exacerbation des caractéristiques de l’asthme, incluant l’hyperréactivité bronchique, la réponse humorale, le recrutement des éosinophiles circulants et tissulaires. Parallèlement à une exacerbation des profils pulmonaires Th2 et Th17, la quantité des ILC2 et ILC3 activées est amplifiée chez les souris asthmatiques obèses et associée à une augmentation de l’expression de l’IL-33, l’IL-1&#946; et une diminution des marqueurs des ILC dans le tissu adipeux viscéral. La déplétion des ILC dans ce modèle a confirmé leur implication dans l’exacerbation de l’asthme chez les souris obèses, notamment via une activation des profils Th2 et Th17. Parallèlement, nous avons évalué l’incidence des HAP, polluants provenant d’échappement diesel, en mesurant les caractéristiques moléculaires de l’asthme sévère. Parmi les cellules mononucléaires du sang activées, les particules d’échappement du diesel (DEP)-HAP et celles du benzo[a]pyrène (B[a]P) induisent une augmentation de la production d’IL-22 plus élevée chez les sujets allergiques asthmatiques (AA), et une diminution de l’IL-17A. Cette production d’IL-22 est majoritairement issue des cellules Th22, et son mécanisme d’induction est principalement dépendant de l’AhR sous l’effet des DEP-HAP contrairement au B[a]P. Enfin, nous avons étudié l’impact des infections. L’activation de NOD1 des cellules dendritiques (DC) humaines, indépendamment de l’allergène, promeut un profil Th2, induit préférentiellement la production de CCL17 chez un patient asthmatique, leur maturation et perturbe la production de CCL22 et de l’IL-10. Chez la souris, l’activation systémique de NOD1 exacerbe l’asthme allergique, via l’augmentation de la réponse pulmonaire de type Th2 dépendamment de CCL17.Dans une autre étude, la costimulation de DC immatures humaines par un allergène de chien et le ligand de TLR3 ou TLR9 accentue la différentiation, l’expression de marqueurs d’activation et la production cytokinique des DC, avec l’induction d’un profil Th22/Th1 chez les sujets saints, contrairement à un profil Th22/Th17/Th2 chez les patients AA. Cette activation spécifique des DC, induite par la costimulation chez un patient AA, provoque la sécrétion d’IL-17A, IL-17F et d’IL-13, ainsi qu’une amplification de la production d’IL-22 par les lymphocytes Th22. Tout ceci suggère que la costimulation par certains allergènes et/ou pathogènes peut induire une réponse Th22 et Th17 chez les sujets asthmatiques, et contribuerait à la sévérité de certains asthmes.L'ensemble de ces travaux ont permis d’établir de nouvelles appréhensions des déterminants potentiels dans l’asthme ainsi que de nouvelles notions des mécanismes moléculaires et cellulaires gouvernant la réponse immune. / The prevalence of asthma has increased twice in Western countries since about 1980. An alarming growth which correlates with lifestyle changes: sanitary conditions (exposure to infectious agents), nutrition, or pollution. These elements are risk co-factors, involved in asthma development or aggravation. However, no clear mechanism is determined to date. This work focused on the role of central players in the immune response, the innate and adaptive lymphoid populations in asthma exacerbation by these different cofactors.Obesity is associated with an increased prevalence of asthma. Recently, the innate lymphoid cells (ILC) were involved in these 2 pathologies. The main focus of my work was to characterize the T cells compared to ILC contribution in a murine model of asthma exacerbation induced by mite allergens linked to obesity. A high fat diet leads to the exacerbation of the main asthma features, including bronchial hyperresponsiveness, humoral response, recruitment of circulating and tissue eosinophils. In parallel to the exacerbation of Th2 and Th17 profiles, the amount of activated ILC2 and ILC3 is amplified in the lung of obese asthmatic mice and associated with increased expression of IL-33, IL-1β and reduced ILC markers in visceral adipose tissue. ILC depletion in this model confirmed their involvement in asthma exacerbation in obese mice, especially through Th2 and Th17 profiles activation.On the other hand, we evaluated the impact of PAH, pollutants from diesel exhaust, by monitoring the molecular characteristics of severe asthma. Among the activated blood mononuclear cells, diesel exhaust particles (DEP)-PAH and those of benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) enhance IL-22 production in asthmatic allergic patients (AA), and decrease IL-17A. Th22 cells are the major source of this IL-22 production and its induction mechanism is mainly dependent on AhR under the effect of DEP-PAH contrary to B[a]P.Finally, we investigated the impact of infections. NOD1 priming of human dendritic cells (DC), independently of the allergen presentation, promoted a Th2 polarization profile which involved the production of both CCL17 and CCL22 in nonallergic subjects but only CCL17 in allergic patients. Moreover, NOD1-primed DC from allergic donors exhibited enhanced maturation that led to abnormal CCL22 and IL-10. In mice, systemic NOD1 activation exacerbates allergic asthma, via the increase in pulmonary Th2 response depending on CCL17.In another study, the costimulation of human immature DC, by dog allergen and TLR3 or TLR9 ligands, increases the DC differentiation, expression of activation markers and cytokine production, with the induction of a Th22/Th1 profile in healthy subjects, unlike a Th22/Th17/Th2 profile in AA patients. This specific DC activation, induced by costimulation in AA patients, leads to the IL-17A, IL-17F and IL-13 secretion, as well as the amplification of IL-22 production by Th22 cells. All this suggests that costimulation by certain allergens and/or pathogens can induce Th22 and Th17 response in asthmatic subjects, and may contribute to the severity of some asthma cases.Taken together, the results presented in this work establish new apprehensions of potential asthma determinants, as well as new concepts of molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying the immune response.

NOD1 est une protéine de surveillance intracellulaire jouant un rôle crucial dans la défense immunitaire innée. Suite à la reconnaissance d'un ligand bactérien spécifique, NOD1 recrute RICK au moyen d'une interaction CARD-CARD. RICK module ensuite l'activation du facteur de transcription NF-kB et initie une cascade de signalisation pro-inflammatoire. Le but de cette thèse était de déterminer la base structurale de ce processus. Le domaine CARD de NOD1 a été cloné, exprimé et purifié à la station EMBL de Grenoble. La structure de ce domaine a été résolue par résonance magnétique nucléaire à l'IBS de Grenoble. Cette structure est généralement similaire à celle des autres domaines CARD connus, étant constituée d'un paquet compact de 6 hélices a. Cependant elle présente des caractéristiques inhabituelles concernant la conformation de certaines boucles inter-hélices ainsi que la longueur et l'orientation de la sixième hélice. Des mutations dans les domaines CARDs des protéines NOD1 et RICK entières ont été réalisées pour identifier les résidus importants pour l'interaction ou la signalisation. Des expériences de co-immunoprécipitations et d'activation de NF-kB ont été effectuées à l'Université du Michigan. Trois résidus d'un patch acide de NOD1 (E53, D54 et E56) et trois résidus d'un patch basique de RICK (R444, R483 et R488) sont indispensables à l'interaction. Celle-ci serait donc de nature électrostatique. Deux autres résidus du patch acide du CARD de NOD1, L44 et I57, ont été identifiés comme importants pour la signalisation. Ces résidus peuvent potentiellement contribuer à la formation d'une interaction CARD-CARD fonctionnelle, ou bien également interagir avec d'autres régions de RICK.