The coastal waters off western Scotland are inhabited by two small under-studied common bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) communities: the Inner Hebrides and the Sound of Barra (SoB) community. The region is considered for future developments for the marine renewables industry, which have the potential to negatively impact these communities; however the assessment of impacts and the development of plans to minimise these are currently hampered by a lack of knowledge about the dolphin's distribution and residency patterns, and spatial and temporal mobility. Using a variety of research methods (dedicated cetacean surveys and targeted photo-ID trips, acoustic monitoring and the collection of opportunistic photo-ID and sightings data from the general public) the current study examined local dolphin spatial and temporal mobility patterns by investigation of their spatial distribution and temporal occurrence. Collectively, the results revealed the presence of two socially and geographically separated (at least 2006-2013) resident communities which both demonstrated year-round presence and long-term site-fidelity, but maintained different ranging patterns. Long-term presence of individuals from the Inner Hebrides community dated back to 2001 and dolphins from this community ranged widely in nearshore waters throughout the entire currently known communal range, and practically used the entire range throughout the year. The SoB community, on the other hand, appeared to have a more restricted distribution, and appeared female-dominated. Summer censuses of the SoB community revealed annual estimates of ≤15 dolphins, with four individuals first identified in 1995, and at least eight calves born since 2005. Acoustic presence of dolphins in the SoB varied through the year, and in relation to the tidal and diel cycles. This study demonstrated that the integration of complementary methodological approaches is useful in investigating mobility patterns of low-density populations, and given the indications for social and spatial isolation, these communities should be managed independently.

This thesis considers the effect of disruptive waves and turbulence on a horizontal axis tidal stream turbine (TST), in terms of performance and survivability. The TST reaction to transient fluid flow is modelled analytically using Blade Element Momentum Theory (BEMT). Standard BEMT corrections are evaluated for the TST application and an alternative optimisation method is proposed for the steady state BEMT, improving compatibility with transient and depth dependent inflow, as well as the non-dimensionalisation constant needed to calculate the performance coefficients. Also, an alternative BEMT tip and hub loss implementation has led to a significant improvement of the turbine axial force prediction and in the high induction region. Validation studies are presented for BEMT coupled with regular, nonlinear wave theory and good agreement is found with published experimental data. A novel method to simulate irregular sea states is developed to couple with BEMT and a combined reactive coupling of waves and current is implemented. The TST performance in an irregular sea state is considered against turbine performance with real ADCP data and a good agreement is found. This work evaluates the BEMT implementation for the specific application of modelling TST's and significantly improves the fundamental theory, applicability and quality of results in this case.

Orientador: Jorge de Lucas Junior / Coorientador: David Ferreira Lopes / Banca: Mônica Sarolli Silva de Mendonça Costa / Banca: Maura Seiko Tsutsui Esperancini / Resumo: A tecnologia de biodigestão anaeróbia desperta interesse, por apresentar vantagens como a geração de energia elétrica, a redução da poluição dos recursos hídricos, do solo e do ar, com a produção de biogás e biofertilizante; produtos de elevado valor agregado à atividade agropecuária. Objetivou-se avaliar, tecnicamente e economicamente, o efeito da co-digestão de tubérculos de batata doce, com dejetos de bovinos leiteiros confinados, em relação aos potenciais de produção e qualidade do biogás e do biofertilizante, utilizando-se biodigestores de regime semicontínuo. O experimento foi dividido em duas etapas, ensaio de biodigestão anaeróbia e análise de viabilidade econômica. A primeira etapa teve duração de seis meses avaliando-se a inclusão de diferentes quantidades de batata doce (0%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%) em relação ao dejeto. Foram abastecidos 20 biodigestores sendo cinco tratamentos com quatro repetições. Para análise dos dados considerou-se um delineamento inteiramente casualizado, utilizando-se o programa Sigmaplot 12.0 com nível de significância de 5%. Na segunda etapa foram definidos os gastos e as receitas geradas com a implantação de biodigestores para cinco cenários estimados, cada qual, com 200 bovinos leiteiros, sendo os dejetos gerados por esses, co-digeridos com diferentes porcentagens de batata doce (0%, 20%, 30%, 40% e 50%). Por meio das técnicas do fluxo de caixa descontado, Valor Presente Líquido, Taxa Interna de Retorno, Payback descontado e Índice de lucrat... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: Anaerobic biodigestion technology is of interest because it presents advantages such as the generation of electric energy, the reduction of pollution of water, soil, and air resources, with the production of biogas and biofertilizer; products of high added value to the livestock activity. The objective of this study was to evaluate, technically and economically, the effect of co-digestion of sweet potato root with confined dairy cattle's waste, in relation to the quantity and quality of the biogas and the quality of the biofertilizer, using biodigesters of semicontinuous regime. The experiment was divided into two stages, anaerobic biodigestion test and economic viability analysis. The first stage lasted six months, evaluating the inclusion of different percentage of sweet potatoes (0%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%) in relation to the waste. Twenty biodigesters were supplied of five treatments with four repetitions. For data analysis, a completely randomized design was used, using the Sigmaplot 12.0 program with a significance level of 5%. In the second stage, the outgoing and income generated with the implantation of biodigesters for five scenarios were estimated, each one with 200 dairy cattle, and the wastes generated by them, co-digested with different percentages of sweet potatoes (0%, 20 %, 30%, 40% and 50%). The economic data were analyzed.through the techniques of discounted cash flow, Net Present Value, Internal Rate of Return, Discounted Payback and Profitability Index. The addition of sweet potatoes to biodigesters with bovine milk manures increased linearly the production of biogas and methane as the proportions of sweet potatoes increased. The concentrations of methane were between 63% and 65.5%, characterizing the biogas obtained as good quality. The concentrations of nitrogen found in the biofertilizer increased in proportion to the increase of sweet potato, since the concentrations ... / Mestre

Orientador: Carlos Alberto Canesin / Banca: Guilherme Azevedo e Melo / Banca: Moacyr Aureliano Gomes de Brito / Resumo: Com a motivação existente pela necessidade de crescimento das novas fontes de energia alternativas, bem como pelos avanços das tecnologias para os sistemas de conversão de energia, o presente estudo propõe a utilização do conversor integrado três estados Buck-Boost monofásico para o aproveitamento da energia proveniente dos sistemas solares fotovoltaicos. Os sistemas de painéis fotovoltaicos fornecem tensões contínuas, contudo, a grande maioria de aparelhos ou cargas de uso domiciliar necessita de tensões alternadas, com valores eficazes nominais de 127 V ou 220 V, no Brasil. Isso leva à necessidade do estudo de estruturas conversoras CC-CA, conhecidas como inversores. Considerando que as tensões alternadas fornecidas pelos inversores encontram-se dependentes do valor máximo da tensão de entrada, é indispensável a inclusão de um estágio elevador no sistema geral, antes de fornecer energia para as cargas, resultando, assim, em uma redução no rendimento, devido à quantidade de componentes, ao aumento de peso e ao volume. Nesta dissertação, o inversor estudado realiza, em uma única estrutura, a função do estágio elevador ou redutor, garantindo níveis reduzidos de distorção harmônica na corrente injetada e tensão de saída no modo ilhado, com um bom rendimento, fornecendo energia para cargas conectadas em modo de operação ilhado ou conectado à rede. Neste conversor, o sistema de chaveamento de três estados proporciona uma melhora das características dinâmicas. A adição do terceiro estado simplifica o controle por modo tensão, na medida em que elimina o zero presente no semiplano direito da função de transferência do conversor Buck-Boost convencional. Para o desenvolvimento das estratégias de controle, adotou-se o modelo matemático por valores médios instantâneos, em espaço de estados. Adicionalmente, foi realizada uma revisão e avaliação de alguns dos algoritmos de MPPT (Maximum Power Point... / Abstract: The current motivation of growing need for new alternative energy sources, as well as by improvements in technologies for energy conversion systems, this study proposes the use of the single-phase tri-states Buck-Boost integrated converter for the use of energy from solar photovoltaic systems. Photovoltaic systems provide DC voltages and, on the other hand, the large majority of machines or domestic use loads require alternating voltage with RMS values of 127 V or 220 V in Brazil. This points out to the need to study of DC-AC converter structures, known as inverters. Due to the limitation that the alternating voltage supplied by the inverters are dependent on the maximum value of the input voltage, the inclusion of an elevator stage in the general system is necessary, before providing power to the load, thus resulting in a reduction in the performance by the number of components, increased weight and volume. In this dissertation, the studied inverter performs, in a single structure, the functions of the elevator stage or reducer stage, also performs the continues in alternating voltage conversion function, ensuring reduced levels of harmonic distortion in the current injected to the main grid and the output voltage in islanding mode, with an increase performance in the output voltage, and that should provide power to loads connected in both modes islanding or grid connected. In the presented converter, the switching system of three states has improved the behavior of dynamic characteristics due to the addition of the third estate, simplifying the control by eliminating the zero present in the right half-plane of the transfer function of Buck-Boost inverter, controlled in voltage mode. For the development of control strategies is adopted the mathematical model for instantaneous average values. The modeling of the structure is made by the mean values method in the state spaces. Additionally, is carried out a review and assessment of some ... / Mestre

A crescente demanda energética mundial é um dos principais problemas a ser enfrentado pela sociedade, uma vez que, a produção de energia elétrica na atualidade tem sua base em combustíveis fósseis, os quais possuem reservas não perenes e seus efeitos maléficos ao meio ambiente tem causado um impacto muito grande na natureza. Estes fatores têm incentivado a busca por alternativas para produção de energia elétrica a partir de fontes renováveis, principalmente em unidades de Geração Distribuída. A energia solar fotovoltaica se destaca neste contexto principalmente por sua flexibilidade quanto à potência e o ponto de conexão dos geradores, indo ao encontro do conceito de Geração Distribuída. Visando a expansão do emprego de geradores fotovoltaicos a redução do custo da energia gerada é fundamental, para tanto se deve conceber conversores eletrônicos capazes de adequar a energia CC produzida pelos geradores para que esta seja diretamente injetada na rede elétrica CA. No caso de geradores com um único módulo fotovoltaico, tem-se a oportunidade de extrair a máxima potência gerada pelo mesmo evitando-se problemas de sombreamento e dissimilaridades entre módulos, todavia o emprego de conversores eletrônicos com alto ganho de tensão com a maior eficiência possível é imprescindível. Nesta dissertação é proposta uma nova metodologia de integração de conversores estáticos, permitindo que novos conversores estáticos não isolados com alto ganho de tensão sejam derivados. Esta metodologia baseia-se no emprego de indutores acoplados que são compartilhados pelos conversores integrados e cujas seções e terminais são associados de modo que a topologia resultante possua um ganho de tensão que corresponde a soma dos ganhos individuais de cada conversor. Como exemplo e estudo de caso é analisada a integração dos conversores boost e flyback. São apresentados os modos de operação e as principais características dos conversores boost-flyback derivados neste trabalho, bem como uma metodologia de projeto para os circuitos e resultados experimentais. Os protótipos avaliados em laboratório mostram que os conversores boost-flyback derivados operando com ganho estático de dez vezes podem obter eficiência superior a 90% quando aplicados em um painel fotovoltaico de 200W. / World increasing demand for energy is one of the most challenging problems to be faced by societies in the near future. And it is getting worst because the fossil fuels retain the majority of the world energy share. Besides the risk of outage caused by the depletion of fossil fuel sources, their side effects on the environment have causing a huge impact on the environment. These issues have motivating the search for renewable sources of energy, mainly in distributed generation units. In the renewable resources scenario, the photovoltaic energy has a major role due to its advantages, such as its power flexibility and easy on site placement of generators, which is very favorable for Distributed Generators Systems. Aiming to ensure the worldwide applications of PV systems, it is required to lower the PV energy cost per watt, which can be achieved with more efficient power processing systems that are used to convert the DC power produced by the PV modules in AC power to be injected to the grid. In systems with a power converter per PV module the best performance of the module is achieved in terms of energy efficiency, avoiding shadowing and aging dissimilarity problems that may plague PV generators with a large amount of PV modules. However, to achieve such benefits, power converters with high efficiency and large conversion range are required. In this dissertation it is proposed a novel methodology to synthesize integrated non-isolated DC/DC power converters with wide conversion range. This methodology is based on the use of coupled inductors to integrate the input sections of two power converters, meanwhile their output sections are associated in either, series, parallel or cascade configuration, yielding in a conversion ratio that is the sum of the individual integrated converters. As a case study, the integrated boost-flyback topologies are analyzed. Their modes of operation, chief characteristics as well as design rules are discussed. The analyses are validated by means of experimental results obtained from three laboratory prototypes. The prototypes operate with conversion ratio greater than ten times and the efficiency achiever is higher than 90% when designed for a 200W PV module.

A crescente demanda energética mundial é um dos principais problemas a ser enfrentado pela sociedade, uma vez que, a produção de energia elétrica na atualidade tem sua base em combustíveis fósseis, os quais possuem reservas não perenes e seus efeitos maléficos ao meio ambiente tem causado um impacto muito grande na natureza. Estes fatores têm incentivado a busca por alternativas para produção de energia elétrica a partir de fontes renováveis, principalmente em unidades de Geração Distribuída. A energia solar fotovoltaica se destaca neste contexto principalmente por sua flexibilidade quanto à potência e o ponto de conexão dos geradores, indo ao encontro do conceito de Geração Distribuída. Visando a expansão do emprego de geradores fotovoltaicos a redução do custo da energia gerada é fundamental, para tanto se deve conceber conversores eletrônicos capazes de adequar a energia CC produzida pelos geradores para que esta seja diretamente injetada na rede elétrica CA. No caso de geradores com um único módulo fotovoltaico, tem-se a oportunidade de extrair a máxima potência gerada pelo mesmo evitando-se problemas de sombreamento e dissimilaridades entre módulos, todavia o emprego de conversores eletrônicos com alto ganho de tensão com a maior eficiência possível é imprescindível. Nesta dissertação é proposta uma nova metodologia de integração de conversores estáticos, permitindo que novos conversores estáticos não isolados com alto ganho de tensão sejam derivados. Esta metodologia baseia-se no emprego de indutores acoplados que são compartilhados pelos conversores integrados e cujas seções e terminais são associados de modo que a topologia resultante possua um ganho de tensão que corresponde a soma dos ganhos individuais de cada conversor. Como exemplo e estudo de caso é analisada a integração dos conversores boost e flyback. São apresentados os modos de operação e as principais características dos conversores boost-flyback derivados neste trabalho, bem como uma metodologia de projeto para os circuitos e resultados experimentais. Os protótipos avaliados em laboratório mostram que os conversores boost-flyback derivados operando com ganho estático de dez vezes podem obter eficiência superior a 90% quando aplicados em um painel fotovoltaico de 200W. / World increasing demand for energy is one of the most challenging problems to be faced by societies in the near future. And it is getting worst because the fossil fuels retain the majority of the world energy share. Besides the risk of outage caused by the depletion of fossil fuel sources, their side effects on the environment have causing a huge impact on the environment. These issues have motivating the search for renewable sources of energy, mainly in distributed generation units. In the renewable resources scenario, the photovoltaic energy has a major role due to its advantages, such as its power flexibility and easy on site placement of generators, which is very favorable for Distributed Generators Systems. Aiming to ensure the worldwide applications of PV systems, it is required to lower the PV energy cost per watt, which can be achieved with more efficient power processing systems that are used to convert the DC power produced by the PV modules in AC power to be injected to the grid. In systems with a power converter per PV module the best performance of the module is achieved in terms of energy efficiency, avoiding shadowing and aging dissimilarity problems that may plague PV generators with a large amount of PV modules. However, to achieve such benefits, power converters with high efficiency and large conversion range are required. In this dissertation it is proposed a novel methodology to synthesize integrated non-isolated DC/DC power converters with wide conversion range. This methodology is based on the use of coupled inductors to integrate the input sections of two power converters, meanwhile their output sections are associated in either, series, parallel or cascade configuration, yielding in a conversion ratio that is the sum of the individual integrated converters. As a case study, the integrated boost-flyback topologies are analyzed. Their modes of operation, chief characteristics as well as design rules are discussed. The analyses are validated by means of experimental results obtained from three laboratory prototypes. The prototypes operate with conversion ratio greater than ten times and the efficiency achiever is higher than 90% when designed for a 200W PV module.

The nominal power of single Wind Energy Conversion Systems has been steadily growing, reaching power ratings close to 10 MW. In the power conversion stage, medium-voltage power converters are replacing the conventional low-voltage back-to-back topology. Modular Multilevel Converters have appeared as a promising solution for Multi-MW WECSs due to their characteristics such as modularity, reliability and the capability to reach high nominal voltages. Thereby, this thesis discusses the application of the Modular Multilevel Matrix Converter to drive Multi-MW Wind Energy Conversion Systems (WECSs). The modelling and control systems required for this application are extensively analysed and discussed in this document. The proposed control strategies enable decoupled operation of the converter, providing maximum power point tracking capability at the generator-side, grid-code compliance and Low Voltage Ride Through Control at the grid-side and good steady-state and dynamic performance for balancing the capacitor voltages of the converter. The effectiveness of the proposed control strategies is validated through simulations and experimental results. Simulation results are obtained with a 10MW, 6.6 kV Modular Multilevel Matrix Converter based WECS model developed in PLECS software. Additionally, a 5 kVA downscale prototype has been designed and constructed during this Ph.D. The downscale prototype is composed of 27 H-Bridges power cells. The system is controlled using a Digital Signal Processor connected to three Field Programmable Gate Array which are equipped with 50 analogue-digital channels and 108 gate drive signals. Two programmable AMETEK power supplies emulate the electrical grid and the generator. The wind turbine dynamics is programmed in the generator-side power supply to emulate a generator operating in variable speed/voltage mode. The output port of the Modular Multilevel Matrix Converter is connected to another power source which can generate programmable grid sag-swell conditions. Simulation and experimental results for variable-speed operation, grid-code compliance, and capacitor voltage regulation have confirmed the successful operation of the Modular Multilevel Matrix Converter based WECSs. In all the experiments, the proposed control systems ensure proper capacitor voltage balancing, keeping the flying capacitor voltages bounded and with low ripple. Additionally, the performance of the generator-side and grid-side control system have been validated for Maximum Power Point Tracking and Low-Voltage Ride Through, respectively.

The continual increase in industrialization and global population has increased the dependency and demand on traditional fossil fuels for energy; however, there are limited amounts of fossil fuels available. The slow depletion of fossil fuels has sparked a fresh interest in renewable sources such as lignocellulose to produce a variety of biofuels, such as biogases (e.g. methane), bioethanol, biodiesel and a variety of other solvents and economically valuable by-products. Agricultural crop wastes produced in surplus are typically lignocellulosic in composition and thus partially recalcitrant to enzymatic degradation. The recalcitrant nature of plant biomass and the inability to obtain complete enzymatic hydrolysis has led to the establishment of various pre-treatment strategies. Alkaline pre-treatments increase the accessibility of the exposed surface to enzymatic hydrolysis through the removal of acetyl and uronic acid substituents on hemicellulose. Unlike the use of steam and acid pre-treatments, alkaline pre-treatments solubilize lignin and a small percentage of the hemicellulose, increasing enzyme accessibility and thus the hydrolysis of lignocellulose. The majority of Clostridium cellulovorans associated enzyme synergy studies have been devoted to an understanding of the cellulolytic and hemi-cellulolytic degradation of plant cell walls. However, little is known about the effect of various physical and chemical pre-treatments on the synergistic enzymatic degradation of plant biomass and possible depolymerization of plant cell walls. This study investigates the use of slake lime, sodium hydroxide and ammonium hydroxide to pre-treat sugarcane bagasse under mild conditions and elucidates potentially important synergistic associations between the C. cellulovorans enzymes for the enhanced degradation of lignocellulose. The primary aims of the study were addressed using of a variety of techniques. This included suitable vector constructs for the expression and purification of recombinant C. cellulovorans enzymes, identification of the effects of various pre-treatments on enzyme synergy, and identification of the resultant reducing sugars and phenolic compounds (released during the pre-treatment of the bagasse). This study also made use of physical and chemical pre-treatment methods, protein purification using affinity, high performance liquid and thin layer chromatography, mass spectrometry, sodium dodecyl sulphate and fluorophore-assisted polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (FACE) , enzymatic degradation and synergy studies with various substrates indirectly using the 3, 4-dinitrosalicylic acid (DNS) reducing sugar assay. From this investigation, the following conclusions were made: alkaline pre-treatment successfully solublised, redistributed and removed lignin from the bagasse, increasing the digestibility of the substrates. In summary, the most effective pre-treatment employed 0.114 M ammonium hydroxide / gram bagasse at 70°C for 36 hours, followed by hydrolysis with an enzyme cocktail containing 25% ManA and 75% XynA. This increased the production of sugars approximately 13-fold. Analysis of the sugars produced by the synergistic hydrolysis of sugarcane bagasse (SCB) indicated the presence of xylose, indicating that the enzymes are potentially bifunctional under certain conditions. This study indicated that the use of mild pre-treatment conditions sufficiently removed a large portion of lignin without affecting the hemicellulose moiety of the SCB. This facilitated the potential use of the hemicellulose component for the production of valuable products (e.g. xylitol) in addition to the production of bioethanol. Thus, the potential use of additional components of holocellulose may generate an additional biotechnological benefit and allow a certain degree of flexibility in the biofuel industry, depending on consumer and industrial needs.

The threat of climate change has led to many countries and regions adopting renewable targets. Scotland's is one of the most ambitious, with an aim to generate the equivalent to 100% of its electricity needs from renewable sources by 2020. Scotland has a very large renewable resource, primarily consisting of offshore and onshore wind, tidal stream, wave and hydro power; all of which are characterised by having variable output. Over a long period, such as a year, variability in renewable generation will average out and may meet or exceed total annual demand. This thesis investigates whether matching of demand and generation is possible within a timescale meaningful to electricity system users; that is whether renewable generation can meet electricity demand in any given hour. This was established by using historic data to create an hourly generation hindcast of Scotland's renewable generation over a 30 year climate “normal” period. These outputs are then compared to a hindcast of hourly demand based on observations over the most recent few years. The results demonstrated that it is possible for Scotland to rely entirely upon renewable generation to fulfil demand in any hour of the 30 year hindcast. However, it appears that the renewable capacity and storage currently built or within the Scottish planning system is only sufficient to match demand in 65% of the hours within the hindcast. The hindcast allows judgements to be made as to how 100% of demand could be met most effectively and provides the basis of a coherent planning strategy, with security of supply at its centre. Further wave and tidal stream capacity is shown to be of higher value than additional wind power but in the latter case, addressing the geographical diversity of wind power can enable maximise phasing between sites to increase the security of supply. Importantly this work provides a means of informing decision making about where best to develop wind, wave and tidal resources and what additional storage may be required in order to provide 100% security of supply. The results are also of particular importance to Scotland's renewable generation strategy in the case of assessing where new on- and off-shore wind farms should be developed, as wind is set to dominate Scotland's renewable portfolio for the foreseeable future.

The study found that investing in solar water heater system (SWH) would be an economically, socially and environmentally viable option to implement within urban households; in which the hot water demand, volume of hot water consumption, water heating costs, and electricity tariffs are high. Investing in solar water heater technology should be the key focus of South African government; in order to enhance the wellbeing of the ordinary citizens. The study made use of the qualitative research approach to investigate solar water heater drivers and barriers; from the perspective of energy consumers. This will be achieved by focusing on the major drivers and barriers that consumers consider when making decisions on adoption of solar water heater system. It is believed that solar water heater drivers and barriers substantially influence the potential and urban development thereof. Solar heat is utilized in the residential sector for heating water for bathing, cleaning, washing and cooking food, but its availability is limited (Arora & Arora, 2013). Renewable energy has become a wild card internationally and regionally because of the technical, economic and environmental barriers affecting the disadvantaged individuals.