Worldwide energy consumption is estimated to double between 2008 and 2035. Over-dependence on energy imports from a few, often politically unstable countries, and unpredictable oil and gas prices, pushes energy to a critical agenda. While there is an agreement that we need to change the production and consumption of energy, there is still disagreement about the specific changes that are needed and how they can be achieved. The conventional energy plans relying primarily on fossil fuels and nuclear technologies, which are in need of transformation due to limited resources and carbon dioxide emissions. Energy efficiency improvements and renewable energy should play a leading role in the America's energy future. Energy and environmental organizations believe that renewable energy and energy efficiency can meet half of the world's energy needs by 2050. This thesis describes a model that predicts renewable energy portfolios for the Southern portion of the United States, by evaluating multiple renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, hydropower, biomass, and geothermal. The Southern US is divided into three regions: Southwest, South Central, and Southeast, which are chosen given their location and the level of abundance of renewable resources, thereby minimizing inefficiencies and losses associated to the present generation system. A mathematical predictor takes into account variables such as supply/demand, non-renewable/renewable sources, and time. From the results, the Southwest and South Central regions confirm an surplus of renewable electricity by 2050, but the Southeast region does not have enough renewable resources to detach itself from the use of fossil fuels. The South Central region begins producing a surplus of renewable energy in 2014 and reaches an excess amount of 14,552 billion KWh by 2050. This means there will be no need to transfer electricity over long distances, which will increase the overall efficiency of electrical generation.

Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the Degree of Master of Technology: Biotechnology, Durban University of Technology, 2011. / Due to greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuel usage, the impending threat of global climate change has increased. The need for an alternative energy feedstock that is not in direct competition to food production has drawn the focus to microalgae. Research suggests that future advances in microalgal mass culture will require closed systems as most microalgal species of interest thrive in highly selective environments. A high lipid producing microalga, identified as Chlorella vulgaris was isolated from a freshwater pond. To appraise the biofuel potential of the isolated strain, the growth kinetics, pyroletic characteristics and photosynthetic efficiency of the Chlorella sp was evaluated in vitro. The optimised preliminary conditions for higher biomass yield of the selected strain were at 4% CO2, 0.5 g l-1 NaNO3 and 0.04 g l-1 PO4, respectively. Pulse amplitude modulation results indicated that C. vulgaris could withstand a light intensity ranging from 150-350 μmol photons m-2s-1. The pyrolitic studies under inert atmosphere at different heating rates of 15, 30, 40 and 50 ºC min-1 from ambient temperature to 800 oC showed that the overall final weight loss recorded for the four different heating rates was in the range of 78.9 to 81%. A tubular photobioreactor was then designed and utilised for biomass and lipid optimisation. The suspension of microalgae was circulated by a pump and propelled to give a sufficiently turbulent flow periodically through the illuminated part and the dark part of the photobioreactor. Microalgal density was determined daily using a Spectrophotometer. Spectrophotometric determinations of biomass were periodically verified by dry cell weight measurements. Results suggest that the optimal NaNO3 concentration for cell growth in the reactor was around 7.5 g l-1, yielding maximum biomass of 2.09 g l-1 on day 16. This was a significant 2.2 fold increase in biomass (p < 0.005) when compared to results achieved at the lowest NaNO3 cycle (of 3.8 g l-1), which yielded a biomass value of 0.95 g l-1 at an OD of 1.178. Lipid accumulation experiments revealed that the microalga did not accumulate significant amounts of lipids when NaNO3 concentrations in the reactor were beyond 1.5 g l-1 (p > 0.005). The largest lipid fraction occurred when the NaNO3 concentration in the medium was 0.5 g l-1. Results suggest that the optimal trade-off between maximising biomass and lipid content occurs at 0.9 g l-1 NaNO3 among the tested conditions within the photobioreactor. Gas chromatograms showed that even though a greater number of known lipids were produced in Run 8, the total lipid percentage was much lower when compared to Runs 9-13. For maximal biomass and lipid from C. vulgaris, it is therefore crucial to optimise nutritional parameters such as NaNO3. However, suitable growth conditions for C. vulgaris in a tubular photobioreactor calls for innovative technological breakthroughs and therefore work is ongoing globally to address this.

Thesis (MScEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: In recent times, governments around the world have placed increasing focus on cleaner technologies and sustainable methods of power generation in an attempt to move away from fossil fuel derived power, which is deemed unsustainable and unfriendly to the environment. This trend has also been supported by the South African government, with clear intentions to diversify the country’s power generation by including, among others, biomass as a renewable resource for electricity generation. Woody biomass and associated forestry residues in particular, could potentially be used as such a renewable resource when considering the large amount of fast growing hardwood species cultivated in South Africa. Approximately 6.3 million ton of Eucalyptus grandis is sold annually for pulp production while a further 7 million ton of Eucalyptus species are sold as round wood. With these tree species reaching commercial maturity within 7 – 9 years in the South African climate, there is real potential in harnessing woody biomass as a renewable energy source. In this study, pyrolysis was investigated as a method to condense and upgrade E.grandis into energy and chemical rich products. The pyrolysis of E.grandis is the study of the thermal degradation of the biomass, in the absence of oxygen, to produce char and bio-oil. The thermal degradation behaviour of E.grandis was studied using thermo-gravimetric analysis (TGA) at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) in Germany and subsequently used to determine the isoconversional kinetic constants for E.grandis and its main lignocellulosic components. Slow, Vacuum and Fast Pyrolysis were investigated and optimised to maximise product yields and to identify the key process variables affecting product quality. The Fast Pyrolysis of E.grandis was investigated and compared on bench (KIT0.1 kg/h), laboratory (SU1 kg/h) and pilot plant scale (KIT10 kg/h), using Fast Pyrolysis reactors at Stellenbosch University (SU) in South Africa and at KIT in Germany. The Slow and Vacuum Pyrolysis of E.grandis was investigated and compared using a packed bed reactor at Stellenbosch University. The TGA revealed that biomass particle size had a negligible effect on the thermal degradation behaviour of E.grandis at a heating rate set point of 50 °C/min. It was also shown that increasing the furnace heating rates shifted the thermo-gravimetric (TG) and differential thermo-gravimetric (DTG) curves towards higher temperatures while also increasing the maximum rate of volatilisation. Lignin resulted in the largest specific char yield and also reacted across the widest temperature range of all the samples investigated. The average activation energies found for the samples investigated were 177.8, 141.0, 106.2 and 170.4 kJ/mol for holocellulose, alpha-cellulose, Klason lignin and raw E.grandis, respectively. Bio-oil yield was optimised at 76 wt. % (daf) for the SU1 kg/h Fast Pyrolysis plant using an average biomass particle size of 570 μm and a reactor temperature of 470 °C. Differences in the respective condensation chains of the various Fast Pyrolysis reactor configurations investigated resulted in higher gas and char yields for the KIT reactor configurations compared to the SU1 kg/h Fast Pyrolysis plant. Differences in the vapour residence time between Slow (>400 s) and Vacuum Pyrolysis (< 2 s) resulted in a higher liquid and lower char yield for Vacuum Pyrolysis. Local liquid yield maxima of 41.1 and 64.4 wt. % daf were found for Slow and Vacuum Pyrolysis, respectively (achieved at a reactor temperature of 450 °C and a heating rate of 17 °C/min). Even though char yields were favoured at low reactor temperatures (269 – 300 °C), the higher heating values of the char were favoured at high reactor temperatures (29 – 34 MJ/kg for 375 – 481 °C). Reactor temperature had the most significant effects on product yield and quality for the respective Slow and Vacuum Pyrolysis experimental runs. The bio-oils yielded for SP and VP were found to be rich in furfural and acetic acid. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Regerings regoor die wêreld het in die afgelope tyd toenemende fokus geplaas op skoner tegnologie en volhoubare metodes van kragopwekking in 'n poging om weg te beweeg van fossielbrandstof gebasseerde energie, wat geag word as nie volhoubaar nie en skadelik vir die omgewing. Hierdie tendens is ook ondersteun deur die Suid-Afrikaanse regering, met 'n duidelike bedoeling om die land se kragopwekking te diversifiseer deur, onder andere, biomassa as 'n hernubare bron vir die opwekking van elektrisiteit te gebruik. Houtagtige biomassa en verwante bosbou afval in die besonder, kan potensieel gebruik word as so 'n hernubare hulpbron, veral aangesien ‘n groot aantal vinnig groeiende hardehout spesies tans in Suid-Afrika verbou word. Ongeveer 6,3 miljoen ton Eucalyptus grandis word jaarliks verkoop vir pulp produksie, terwyl 'n verdere 7 miljoen ton van Eucalyptus spesies verkoop word as paal hout. Met hierdie boom spesies wat kommersiële volwassenheid bereik binne 7 - 9 jaar in die Suid-Afrikaanse klimaat, is daar werklike potensiaal vir die benutting van houtagtige biomassa as 'n hernubare energiebron. In hierdie studie is pirolise ondersoek as 'n metode om E.grandis te kondenseer en op te gradeer na energie en chemikalie ryke produkte. Die pirolise van E.grandis is die proses van termiese afbreking van die biomassa, in die afwesigheid van suurstof, om houtskool en bio-olie te produseer. Die termiese afbrekingsgedrag van E.grandis is bestudeer deur gebruik te maak van termo-gravimetriese analise (TGA) by die Karlsruhe Instituut van Tegnologie in Duitsland en daarna gebruik om die kinetiese konstantes vir die iso-omskakeling van E.grandis en sy hoof komponente te bepaal. Stadige, Vakuum en Snel pirolise is ondersoek en geoptimiseer om produk opbrengste te maksimeer en die sleutel proses veranderlikes wat die kwaliteit van die produk beïnvloed te identifiseer. Die Snel Pirolise van E.grandis is ondersoek en vergelyk op bank- (KIT0.1 kg / h), laboratorium- (SU1 kg / h) en proefaanlegskaal (KIT10 kg / h) deur gebruik te maak van Snel pirolise reaktore by die Universiteit van Stellenbosch (US) in Suid-Afrika en die Karlsruhe Instituut van Tegnologie (KIT) in Duitsland. Die Stadige en Vakuum Pirolise van E.grandis is ondersoek en vergelyk met behulp van 'n gepakte bed reaktor aan die Universiteit van Stellenbosch. Die TGA studie het openbaar dat biomassa deeltjiegrootte 'n onbeduidende uitwerking op die termiese afbrekingsgedrag van E.grandis het by 'n verhittings tempo van 50 ° C / min. Dit is ook bewys dat die verhoging van die oond verwarming tempo die termo-gravimetriese (TG) en differensiële termo-gravimetriese (DTG) kurwes na hoër temperature verskuif, terwyl dit ook die maksimum tempo van vervlugtiging laat toeneem het. Lignien het gelei tot die grootste spesifieke houtskool opbrengs en het ook oor die wydste temperatuur interval gereageer van al die monsters wat ondersoek is. Die gemiddelde aktiveringsenergieë vir die monsters wat ondersoek is, was 177,8, 141,0, 106,2 en 170,4 kJ / mol, onderskeidelik vir holosellulose, alpha-sellulose, Klason lignien en rou E.grandis. Bio-olie opbrengs is geoptimeer teen 76 wt. % (DAF) vir die SU1 kg / h Snel Pirolise aanleg met behulp van 'n gemiddelde biomassa deeltjiegrootte van 570 μm en 'n reaktor temperatuur van 470 ° C. Verskille in die onderskeie kondensasie kettings van die verskillende Snel Pirolise aanlegte wat ondersoek is, het gelei tot hoër gas- en houtskool opbrengste vir die KIT reaktor konfigurasies in vergelyking met die SU1kg/h FP plant. Verskille in die damp retensie tyd tussen Stadige (> 400 s) en Vakuum pirolise (<2 s) het gelei tot 'n hoër vloeistof en laer houtskool opbrengs vir Vakuum Pirolise. Plaaslike vloeistof opbrengs maksima van 41,1 en 64,4 wt. % (daf) is gevind vir Stadig en Vakuum pirolise onderskeidelik, bereik by 'n reaktor temperatuur van 450 ° C en 'n verhittingstempo van 17 ° C / min. Selfs al is houtskool opbrengste bevoordeel by lae reaktor temperature (269 - 300 ° C), is die hoër warmte waardes van die houtskool bevoordeel deur hoë reaktor temperature (29 - 34 MJ / kg vir 375 - 481 ° C). Reaktor temperatuur het die mees beduidende effek op die produk opbrengs en kwaliteit vir die onderskeie Stadige Pirolise en Vakuum Pirolise eksperimentele lopies gehad. Die bio-olies geproduseer tydens Stadige en Vakuum Pirolise was ryk aan furfuraal en asynsuur.

Forest biomass burned for energy purposes does not need to be accounted for under IPCC rules. This has led to a number of countries considering tree stump harvesting as a source of forest biomass. However there are concerns that the soil disturbance that this may entail could have adverse environmental effects, including the loss of sequestered carbon from the soil. Published results differ in the degree and nature of stump harvesting soil disturbance. Two widely used measures employed in stump harvesting soil disturbance studies are visual assessment of disturbance extent and bulk density measures of the nature of disturbance. Each of these has limitations. This study seeks to extend the insight into both the nature and extent of soil disturbance resulting from stump harvesting by the application of additional techniques. In this way the physical effects of soil disturbance by stump harvesting will be compared with those of other forestry practices. To overcome the two-dimensional and subjective nature of visual assessment, a radiometric approach was adopted, utilising residual Chernobyl 137Cs fallout to determine the degree of soil mixing. To complement bulk density measurements, micromorphological analyses of soil thin sections taken from field samples were carried out to investigate the impact of compressive force on pore space. Low-cost tracer devices were deployed in the soil around stumps prior to extraction to permit the monitoring of the lateral movement of soil during stump extraction. These methods were applied to a stump harvesting operation carried out under current UK guidance at a UPM Tilhill managed site in south west Scotland. The radiometric method demonstrated its capacity to recognise differing degrees of soil disturbance in an operational forest environment, including some disturbance that might escape visual assessment. Analysis of soil thin sections provided the evidence of a significant increase in the pore capacity of disturbed soil. The soil movement tracers developed for this project provided the capability to examine the various trajectories of soil during stump extraction as well as dimensioning the resulting disturbance crater. The study indicated that under current UK management and operational practice, stump harvesting generated a higher level of soil disturbance compared to ground preparation by trench mounding, with an estimated 1260 m3 ha-1 of soil disturbed by stump harvesting compared to 250 m3 ha-1 from trench mounding. Stump harvesting was found to generate a net reduction in soil bulk density in the affected areas, contrary to the findings of some other studies. This outcome is dependent on adhering to particular site management and operational procedures. The practice of raking over the site following stump harvesting is estimated to add a further 10% to the volume of soil disturbed, and is a questionable activity under soil sustainability guidance. This work was part-funded and actively supported by the UK Forestry Commission and UPM Tilhill.

Thesis (MScIng (Electrical and Electronic Engineering))--University of Stellenbosch, 2009. / A bi-directional, direct conversion switch-mode converter is proposed for use in distributed household renewable energy systems. The converter is intended as the central interface between the household energy system’s low voltage Direct Current bus and the high voltage Alternating Current bus. The low voltage DC bus is connected to renewable generation and storage devices, while the high voltage AC bus is connected to the user’s equipment and the mains grid. The converter overcomes the inherent reverse-duty cycle problem associated with bi-directional converters by using a combination step-up / step-down half-bridge converter on the high voltage side of a high frequency transformer. The low voltage side of the transformer is driven by a full bridge inverter that acts as a rectifier during reverse mode. In order to control the flow of power in both directions the converter implements Average Current Mode Control. A method is developed to determine the transfer functions of common switch-mode converters by inspection alone. This method is applied to the proposed converter, and both current and voltage mode control loops are designed with the frequency response method. The control system is implemented using a Digital Signal Processor. A method of simultaneously simulating both the converter hardware and software is developed using VHDL. This method greatly reduced the development effort of the converter. The operation of the proposed converter is verified through this method of simulation. A prototype converter is constructed and successfully tested, thereby proving the viability of the proposed converter topology and control methodology.

Τα τελευταία χρόνια, οι ολοένα και περισσότερο εμφανιζόμενες επιπτώσεις της κλιματικής αλλαγής, η οικονομική αστάθεια αλλά και οι μεταβαλλόμενες πολιτικές συνθήκες, έχουν επαναφέρει δυναμικά στο προσκήνιο τις Ανανεώσιμες Πηγές Ενέργειας, καθιστώντας αυτές ως το πλέον εναλλακτικό τρόπο παροχής ενέργειας, μετά τις συμβατικές πηγές. Τόσο η Ελλάδα όσο και οι Βουλγαρία είναι δύο χώρες με μεγάλο δυναμικό ανανεώσιμων πηγών ενέργειας, η αξιοποίηση του οποίου μπορεί να δώσει σημαντική βοήθεια στην οικονομική τους ανάπτυξη, ιδιαίτερα εν μέσω της δύσκολης οικονομικής συγκυρίας που έχει εμφανείς επιπτώσεις και στις δύο χώρες. Στην παρούσα έρευνα, γίνεται προσπάθεια ώστε να σκιαγραφηθούν οι απόψεις των πολιτών των χωρών της Ελλάδος και της Βουλγαρίας αναφορικά με τις Ανανεώσιμες Πηγές Ενέργειας, καθώς και μία θεωρητική ανάλυση για την κατάσταση σχετικά με την «πράσινη» ενέργεια που επικρατεί στις δύο χώρες. Στόχος είναι να αποτυπωθούν οι απόψεις των πολιτών, να συγκριθούν και τελικά να εξαχθούν χρήσιμα συμπεράσματα που θα προσδιορίσουν τον τρόπο δράσης των αρμοδίων των δύο χωρών. Τα δεδομένα συλλέχθηκαν μέσω ερωτηματολογίων που διατέθηκαν σε 400 συνολικά πολίτες των δύο χωρών (200 Έλληνες και 200 Βούλγαρους), και αναλύθηκαν μέσω του προγράμματος SPSS 19. / In recent years, the emerging impacts of climate change, the economic instability and the political conditions have turned renewable energy sources to the most important alternative energy supply. Both Greece and Bulgaria are two countries with large potential on renewable energy sources. Their use can provide significant assistance in economic development, particularly in the midst of economic crisis which has obvious implications for both countries. In the present study, an attempt is made to sketch the views of citizens of the two countries regarding renewable energy. It is also a theoretical analysis of the situation of "green" energy in both countries. The objective is to properly reflect the views of citizens, to compare and ultimately to teach lessons that will determine the mode of action at these two countries. Questionnaires were distributed to a total of 400 citizens of the two countries (200 Bulgarians and 200 Greeks) in order to collect the data and we used SPSS 19 to analyze them.

Η παρούσα διπλωματική εργασία εκπονήθηκε με σκοπό την δημιουργία ενός μοντέλου του Εθνικού Διασυνδεδεμένου Συστήματος Μεταφοράς για το έτος 2015, στο οποίο θα συμπεριλαμβάνονται όλες οι μονάδες Ανανεώσιμων Πηγών Ενέργειας που γνωρίζομε ή υποθέτουμε ότι θα ενταχθούν στο Σύστημα μέχρι το 2015. Οι υποθέσεις αυτές έγιναν σύμφωνα με τα στοιχεία της ΜΑΣΜ 2010-2014 (όπου αναφέρονται αναλυτικά οι μονάδες παραγωγής ενέργειας συμβατικές και μη, που θα συνδεθούν ή θα αποσυρθούν από το Σύστημα), τις προβλέψεις του Εθνικού Σχεδίου Δράσης για τις ΑΠΕ (ΕΣΔ/ΑΠΕ), την σχετική μελέτη που πραγματοποιήθηκε στο Κέντρο Ανανεώσιμων Πηγών Ενέργειας (ΚΑΠΕ), καθώς από την Ρυθμιστική Αρχή Ενέργειας (ΡΑΕ) από την οποία γνωρίζουμε ποιες μονάδες βρίσκονται στο στάδιο της αδειοδοτικής διαδικασίας και επομένως η ένταξή τους στο Σύστημα είναι πολύ πιθανό να πραγματοποιηθεί στα προσεχή έτη. Η επιλογή του έτους 2015 για την μελέτη έγινε επειδή τα διαθέσιμα μέχρι σήμερα στοιχεία επιτρέπουν πιο ασφαλείς προβλέψεις για την διαμόρφωση του ηλεκτρικού Συστήματος Μεταφοράς. Παρόλο που ο τελικός στόχος από την Ευρωπαϊκή Ένωση τέθηκε για το 2020, μια απευθείας μελέτη διαμόρφωσης του Συστήματος για τότε θα ήταν επισφαλής, καθώς, όπως προαναφέρθηκε, δεν υπάρχει η απαιτούμενη πληροφορία. Άλλωστε το 2015 θα μπορούσε να θεωρηθεί ένας βασικός σταθμός καθώς θα αποτελέσει την βάση για την επίτευξη του στόχου που έχει τεθεί για το 2020. Πιο αναλυτικά η διπλωματική αυτή εργασία χωρίζεται στις παρακάτω ενότητες: ΚΕΦΑΛΑΙΟ 1Ο: ΘΕΩΡΙΑ ΣΥΣΤΗΜΑΤΩΝ ΗΛΕΚΤΡΙΚΗΣ ΕΝΕΡΓΕΙΑΣ Στο κεφάλαιο αυτό στην πρώτη ενότητα αρχικά γίνεται αναφορά στην Ανάλυση Ροής Φορτίου και στο πόσο σημαντικό ρόλο έχει η ανάλυση αυτή για την σωστή σχεδίαση και λειτουργία του ηλεκτρικού Συστήματος. Στη συνέχεια γίνεται η μαθηματική περιγραφή του προβλήματος της ανάλυσης ροής φορτίου καθώς και μια εκτενής αναφορά για τις παραδοχές και τις προϋποθέσεις που πρέπει να τηρηθούν ώστε τελικά να δουλέψει σωστά το Σύστημα ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας που πρόκειται να σχεδιαστεί. Τέλος γίνεται μια μικρή αναφορά στις αριθμητικές μεθόδους που θα χρησιμοποιηθούν ώστε να πραγματοποιηθεί η επίλυση των εξισώσεων που προέκυψαν από την ανάλυση ροής φορτίου. Στην επόμενη ενότητα του ίδιου κεφαλαίου παρουσιάζονται τα στοιχεία του Συστήματος (π.χ. ζυγοί, κυκλώματα, μηχανές, φορτία κλπ.) που περιλαμβάνονται στην βάση δεδομένων του υπολογιστικού προγράμματος που θα χρησιμοποιηθεί για την επίλυση των εξισώσεων της ανάλυσης ροής φορτίου. Στην τελευταία ενότητα αυτού του κεφαλαίου γίνεται μια μικρή παρουσίαση του προγράμματος PSS/E, που είναι και το υπολογιστικό πρόγραμμα που χρησιμοποιήθηκε στην παρούσα εργασία για την επίλυση του Συστήματος. ΚΕΦΑΛΑΙΟ 2Ο: ΕΘΝΙΚΟ ΣΧΕΔΙΟ ΔΡΑΣΗΣ ΓΙΑ ΤΙΣ ΑΠΕ ΚΑΙ ΟΙ ΣΤΟΧΟΙ ΜΕΧΡΙ ΤΟ 2020 Στην πρώτη ενότητα αυτού του κεφαλαίου παρουσιάζεται ποιο είναι το σχέδιο δράσης για τις ΑΠΕ που αφορά την χώρα μας. Στην επόμενη ενότητα αυτού του κεφαλαίου, γίνεται μια αναφορά στις προϋποθέσεις ώστε να επιτευχθούν οι στόχοι που θέτει το εθνικό σχέδιο δράσης για τις ΑΠΕ. Τέλος στην τρίτη ενότητα παρουσιάζονται αναλυτικά οι στόχοι διείσδυσης των ΑΠΕ από το 2010 έως το 2020. ΚΕΦΑΛΑΙΟ 3Ο: ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΟ ΔΙΑΣΥΝΔΕΔΕΜΕΝΟ ΣΥΣΤΗΜΑ ΜΕΤΑΦΟΡΑΣ Στην πρώτη ενότητα του κεφαλαίου γίνεται μια αναλυτική περιγραφή του υφιστάμενου Συστήματος Μεταφοράς της χώρας. Στην δεύτερη ενότητα γίνεται αναφορά στην δυνατότητα του ηλεκτρικού δικτύου της χώρας να απορροφήσει την παραγωγή των σταθμών ΑΠΕ που πρόκειται να συνδεθούν σε αυτό. Επιπλέον γίνεται αναφορά στην διαδικασία αδειοδότησης και καθώς και στις υπόλοιπες προϋποθέσεις για την διείσδυση των ΑΠΕ στο Σύστημα. Τέλος στην τρίτη ενότητα γίνεται εφαρμογή του σχεδίου δράσης για τις ΑΠΕ στο έτος 2015, που αποτελεί και το έτος μελέτης της παρούσας εργασίας. ΚΕΦΑΛΑΙΟ 4Ο: ΔΙΑΜΟΡΦΩΣΗ ΤΟΥ ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΟΥ ΔΙΑΣΥΝΔΕΔΕΜΕΝΟΥ ΣΥΣΤΗΜΑΤΟΣ ΜΕΤΑΦΟΡΑΣ ΗΛΕΚΤΡΙΚΗΣ ΕΝΕΡΓΕΙΑΣ ΓΙΑ ΤΟ 2015 Αρχικά στην πρώτη ενότητα παρουσιάζεται η κατανομή φορτίου στους υποσταθμούς του Συστήματος για το 2015. Στη συνέχεια (δεύτερη ενότητα), γίνεται λεπτομερής περιγραφή του Εθνικού Διασυνδεδεμένου Συστήματος Μεταφοράς (ΕΔΣΜ), όπως διαμορφώθηκε για το έτος μελέτης της εργασίας. Τέλος στην τρίτη ενότητα, φαίνεται η μελέτη του μοντέλου του Συστήματος, όπως διαμορφώθηκε για το έτος 2015, για τρία διαφορετικά ακραία σενάρια λειτουργίας. ΚΕΦΑΛΑΙΟ 5Ο: ΣΥΜΠΕΡΑΣΜΑΤΑ ΚΑΙ ΠΡΟΟΠΤΙΚΕΣ Στην πρώτη ενότητα αυτού του κεφαλαίου αναφέρονται τα γενικά συμπεράσματα που προέκυψαν από την προηγηθείσα μελέτη. Στην επόμενη ενότητα, γίνεται αναλυτική παρουσίαση των αποτελεσμάτων στης ανάλυσης ροής φορτίου για κάθε ένα από τα τρία σενάρια που μελετήθηκαν. Ενώ στην τελευταία ενότητα, γίνεται αναφορά στις προοπτικές ανάπτυξης και διαμόρφωσης του Συστήματος για το 2020, βασιζόμενοι στα αποτελέσματα που προέκυψαν από την διαμόρφωση του δικτύου για το 2015. / This thesis, entitled "Study for the development of an electric energy transmission network which incorporates Renewable Energy Sources", was conducted in order to create a model of the National Interconnected Electric Energy Transmission System, which will include all the renewable energy system units that are already known or assumed to join the system by 2015. These assumptions were made according to the data provided by the TSDS 2010-2014 (offering a detailed plan of the all the power plant units, conventional or not, which will be connected to or removed from the system), the provisions of the National Action Plan for Renewable Energy Sources (EA / RES) , the related study conducted at the Centre for Renewable Energy Sources (CRES), and the data of the Regulatory Authority for Energy (RAE), which indicated the units that are under the licensing process and therefore they are likely to be connected to the system in the years to come. Choosing the year 2015 for the study is based on the fact that the available data nowadays allows for more accurate predictions about the configuration of the electric transmission system in two years period. Although the European Union set the ultimate goal for 2020, a direct study of the system configuration at that time would be risky, since, as mentioned above, the required information is not available. Besides that, the year 2015 could be considered a basic year as it will form the basis for achieving the target set for 2020. This thesis is divided into the following sections: CHAPTER 1: SYSTEMS THEORY OF ELECTRICITY In this chapter the first section refers to Load Flow Analysis and how important this analysis is for the proper design and operation of electrical systems. Afterwards, a mathematical description of the problem of load flow analysis is presented along with a comprehensive analysis of all the assumptions and conditions that must be met, in order to guarantee that power system to be designed will finally work properly. The numerical methods used to solve the equations resulting from the load flow analysis are described briefly. The second section of this chapter contains the system components (eg. scales, circuits, machines, loads, etc.) that are included in the database of the computer program which will be used to solve the equations of the load flow analysis. The last section of this chapter is a short presentation of the PSS / E program, which is the computer program used in this thesis in order to solve the problems stated. CHAPTER 2:NATIONAL ACTION PLAN FOR RES AND GOALS SET BY 2020The first section of this chapter is a thorough description of the action plan for Renewable Energy Sources in our country. The next section of this chapter refers to the conditions that should be met in order to achieve the targets set by the National Action Plan for RES. Finally, in the third section the objectives of the adoption of the RES from 2010 to 2020 are discussed. CHAPTER 3: GREEK INTERCONNECTED TRANSFER SYSTEM The first section of this chapter is a detailed description of the existing electric energy transportation system of our country. In the second part we examine the ability of the existing electric energy network to absorb the production of the RES plants that will be to be connected to it. Furthermore, a presentation of the licensing process and all the other requirements for the adoption of RES in the existing system is provided. In the third section the implementation of the Action Plan for RES in 2015, which is the year that we examine in this thesis, is attempted. CHAPTER 4: DEVELOPMENT OF THE GREEK INTERCONNECTED ELECTRIC ENERGY TRANSFER SYSTEM FOR 2015 Initially how the load will be distributed to the system’s substation in 2015 is described in the first section. The second section is a detailed description of the National Interconnected Transmission System (EDSM) which was designed in this thesis for 2015. Finally, assuming three different extreme scenarios for the system operation an analysis of the designed model for the system, as described in the second section, is presented. CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND PROSPECTS The first section of this chapter summarizes all the general conclusions drawn from the study conducted in this thesis. In the next section, there is a detailed presentation of the results extracted by the load flow analysis conducted for each of the three scenarios examined in the third section of Chapter 4. The last section discusses prospects for the growth and the development of the system for 2020, based on the results extracted from the network configuration that was done for 2015.This thesis was conducted by the student of Electical and Computer Engineering Department, University of Patras, Melaniti Maria-Anthia with the help of Dr. Sakellaridis Nicholas employee to CRES.

Thesis (MScIng)--University of Stellenbosch, 2004. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This thesis discusses a 23 kW three-phase AC bus system that is utilized together with the “Stirling Energy System (SES) Integrated Solar Dish-Stirling Module” to function as a mini-grid for off-grid locations. The system is designed to supply power to 27 rural households. This three-phase AC bus system includes a bidirectional 4-wire PWM converter and a battery bank for energy storage. The simulations and results presented show that the system can function as a rectifier and as an inverter. The system operates as an inverter when the SES starts up and when different AC loads are connected to the AC bus. The unit functions as a rectifier when the battery bank is charged. The design was implemented successfully in a practical system and measurements revealed that the system functioned as a standalone unit. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie tesis bespreek ‘n 23 kW drie-fase vier-draad WS bus stelsel wat saam met die “Stirling Energy System (SES) Integrated Solar Dish-Stirling Module” gebruik word om as ‘n alleenstaande stelsel in ’n plattelandse omgewing te laat funksioneer. Die sisteem is ontwerp om vir 27 plattelandse huise drywing te lewer. Hierdie stelsel behels ‘n drie-fase GS na WS omsetter, saam met loodsuur batterye as energiestoor. Die simulasies en resultate wat gegee word, dui aan dat die omsetter as ‘n wisselrigter en ook as ‘n gelykrigter kan werk. Die stelsel funksioneer as ‘n wisselrigter as die SES aanskakel, en as ekstra laste op die WS bus gekoppel word. Die sisteem funksioneer as ‘n gelykrigter as die batterye gelaai word. Die ontwerp is suksesvol in ‘n praktiese stelsel geimplimenteer wat as ‘n alleenstaande stelsel funksioneer.

published_or_final_version / Environmental Management / Master / Master of Science in Environmental Management

<p>Razvojem i testiranjem autentičnog modela dokazano je da se primenom multikriterijumske analize uz primenu PROMETHEE metode može kreirati funkcionalan, operativan i primenljiv alat za dizajniranje energetskih politika orijentisanih ka podršci razvoja obnovljivih izvora energije. Model je testiran na energetskom profilu Grada Novog Sada. Pretpostavljeno je da lokalne vlasti Grada Novog Sada imaju nameru da dizajniraju razvojnu politiku/meru sa ciljem da podstaknu korišćenje obnovljivih izvora energije za grejanje stambenih objekata (porodičnih kuća) i pripremu tople sanitarne vode.</p> / <p>Development and testing of an authentic model has proven that the application of multi-criteria analysis by applying the PROMETHEE method can create a functional, operational and applicable tool for designing energy policy oriented towards supporting the development of renewable energy sources. It is assumed that local authorities in Novi Sad have the intetion to design development policies / actions in order to promote the use of renewable source for heating residental buldings (family houses) and hot water.</p>