Neste trabalho, foram desenvolvidos sensores eletroquímicos para a detecção amperométrica do óxido nítrico (NO) fundamentada na aplicação da ftalocianina tetrasulfonada de níquel (NiTsPc) e do poli(5-amino 1-naftol) (poli(5-NH2 1-NAP)). NiTsPc foi eletrodepositada por voltametria cíclica sobre o eletrodo de platina e caracterizada eletroquimicamente em diferentes pHs. A detecção amperométrica de NO foi bastante sensível, mas o eletrodo não apresenta seletividade suficiente, motivo pelo qual este material foi substituído pelo poli(5-NH2 1-NAP) modificado com citocromo c. A imobilização foi caracterizada por voltametria cíclica e microbalança a cristal de quartzo. As detecções amperométricas do NO foram efetuadas aplicando o potencial em -0,6 V e foi observado que a variação da corrente devido à adição do NO ocorreu somente no segundo dia após a imobilização da proteína, o que pode estar relacionado a mudanças de estrutura do citcocromo c covalentemente ligado. O poli(5-NH2 1-NAP) foi também eletropolimerizado sobre nanotubos de carbono, obtendo assim um eletrodo nanoestruturado e o citocromo c foi imobilizado nessa estrutura. Assim como para os eletrodos maciços, ele não respondeu ao NO logo após a imobilização do citocromo c, respondendo somente no segundo dia e apresentou um melhor desempenho devido a sua maior área superficial. / In this work, electrochemical sensors for nitric oxide (NO) amperometric detection were prepared. For this purpose nickel tetrasulfonated phthalocyanine (NiTsPc) and poly(5-amino 1-naphthol) (poly(5-NH2 1-NAP)) modified with cytochrome c were applied. NiTsPc was electropolymerized by cyclic voltammery at platinum electrode and were electrochemically characterized in differents pHs. NO amperometric detections were very sensitive, but the electrode does not present satisfactory selectivity, and because of this, the material was replaced by poly(5-NH2 1-NAP) modified with cytochrome c. The immobilization was characterized by cyclic voltammetry and electrochemical crystal microbalance. NO amperometric detection has been carried out by applying -0.6 V and it was observed that the current due the NO sensing was only observed at the second day after protein immobilization. This can be related with cytochrome c structural change. For nanostructuring the surface of Poly(5-NH2 1-NAP) it was electropolymerized on carbon nanotubes felt electrodes and cytochrome c was immobilized. As well as the bulk electrode, the nanostructured one did not sense NO immediately after the cytochrome c immobilization, being possible to observe current only after the second day displaying a much better performance due to its high superficial area.

The deprotonation characteristics of fluorescent probes -naphthol and 8-hydroxypyrene-1,3,6-trisulphonic acid (HPTS) were studied in this diploma thesis, using steady-state and time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy. Two cationic surfactants, Septonex and cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), were studied. These surfactants were measured in the complex with hyaluronan (1.75 MDa, 1 MDa and 300 kDa). Steady-state fluorescence was used for determination of critical aggregation concentration of each surfactant and pKa*. Time-resolved fluorescence decays were used to calculate the average lifetimes and the deprotonation constants of naphthol and HPTS. The measurement with hyaluronan were compared with the polystyrenesulfonate (PSS) – surfactant system. The effect of hydration shell of hyaluronan on hyaluronan – surfactant complex formation results from the comparison of above mentioned systems. Large differences were found in the deprotonation characteristic between surfactants and even between individual molecular weights of hyaluronan. The measurement shows that the hydration shell is located near to the dissociated carboxyl groups of hyaluronan chain, where the interaction with the positively charged surfactants occurs. Furthermore, the aggregation number of Septonex was determined by quenching of pyrene using cetylpyridinium chloride (CPC) as a quencher. The aggregation number for 20 mM Septonex solution was determined as a value of 104 molecules. CPC was used for confirmation of the localization of -naphthol in the micelles of CTAB and polymer – CTAB, respectively.

Die vorliegende Arbeit befasst sich mit der Synthese von porösen Kohlenstoffmaterialien. Zum einen werden poröse Kohlenstoffe (C) für die Anwendung in Siliziumcarbid (SiC) faserverstärkten Verbundwerkstoffen (SiC/C) untersucht, deren Kohlenstoffmatrix definierte Porengrößen im einstelligen Mikrometerbereich aufweisen sollen, um anschließend über das Flüssigsilizierverfahren (LSI) eine stöchiometrische Umsetzung dieser mit flüssigen Silizium zu einer Siliziumcarbid-Matrix zu gewährleisten. Erhalten wird ein keramischer SiC/SiC-Faserverbundwerkstoff, der aufgrund seiner Beständigkeit in Hochtemperatur-Sauerstoffatmosphäre, für den Einsatz in der Luft- und Raumfahrt geeignet ist. Für dieses Ziel wurden verschiedene Kohlenstoffprecursoren, die Resole, Novolake und stickstoffhaltigen Phenolharze unter Zugabe von β-Naphthol, entwickelt. Darüber hinaus lag der Schwerpunkt dieser Arbeit in der Herstellung von porösen Kohlenstoffschäumen. Dafür wurden organische Carbonate dargestellt, deren Substituenten einer Stufenwachstumspolymerisation befähigt sind. In der Schmelze polymerisieren diese Säure-katalysiert und setzen dabei Kohlenstoffdioxid frei, welches gleichzeitig das Polymer schäumt. Die Zugabe eines geeigneten Tensides stabilisiert die Kohlenstoffdioxidblasen und generiert Schäume unter einer hohen Volumenexpansion. Die organischen Carbonate wurden zudem simultan mit Zwillingsmonomeren kationisch polymerisiert um einen Hybridmaterialschaum zu synthetisieren, der anschließend in hierarchisch strukturierte poröse Kohlenstoff- und Siliziumdioxidschäume umgewandelt werden kann. Neben klassischen Methoden zur Aufklärung der molekularen Strukturen, wie der Kernspinresonanz- (NMR) und Infrarot (IR)-Spektroskopie, wurden Morphologie und Porosität mittels Licht- und Rasterelektronenmikroskopie (REM) beziehungsweise Stickstoffsorption und Quecksilberporosimetrie untersucht. Überdies kamen DSC (Dynamische Differenzkalorimetrie) und TGA (Thermogravimetrische Analyse) zur Untersuchung des thermischen Verhaltens der Monomere und Polymere zum Einsatz.:1 Einleitung 2 Motivation und Zielsetzung 3 Theoretische Grundlagen 3.1 Poröse Materialien und deren Charakterisierung 3.1.1 Einteilung nach der Porengröße 3.1.2 Einteilung nach der Porenmorphologie 3.1.3 Beschreibung und Bestimmung von der Porosität 3.1.4 Charakterisierung von Mikro- und Mesoporen 3.2 Herstellung von porösen Kohlenstoff- und Siliziumdioxidmaterialien 3.2.1 Harttemplatsynthesen 3.2.2 Weichtemplatsynthesen 3.2.3 Gelsynthesen und Emulsionstechniken 3.2.4 Schäumungsprozesse 3.2.5 Hybridmaterialien 3.2.6 Zwillingspolymerisation 3.2.7 Hierarchisch strukturierte Kohlenstoffmaterialien mittels Zwillingspolymerisation 3.3 Verwendung von porösen Kohlenstoffmaterialien 3.3.1 SiC/SiC-Faserverbundwerkstoffe 4 Ergebnisse und Diskussion 4.1 Synthese von Phenolharzen als Kohlenstoffprecursoren für SiC/C Faserverbundwerkstoffe 4.1.1 Anforderungen an die Kohlenstoffprecursoren für eine SiC-Matrix 4.1.2 Resole 4.1.3 Novolake und stickstoffhaltige Phenolharze 4.1.4 Molmassen 4.1.1 DSC- und Rheologie-Untersuchungen 4.1.2 Aushärtung der flüssigen Harzformulierungen 4.1.2.1 13C-{1H}-CP-MAS-NMR-Spektroskopie 4.1.3 Herstellung von Kohlenstoffen 4.1.4 Untersuchung der Morphologie und Porosität 4.1.4.1 Ausgehärtete Harze 4.1.4.2 Kohlenstoff 4.1.5 Herstellung und Charakterisierung der SiC/C-Faserverbundwerkstoffe 4.1.6 Untersuchung zur Struktur des Kohlenstoffs 4.1.7 Silizierung der Kohlenstoffe 4.1.8 Porosität durch Catecholoxalat 4.2 Kationische Polymerisation von organischen Carbonaten 4.2.1 Synthese organischer Carbonate 4.2.2 Polymerisationsverhalten organischer Carbonate 4.2.3 Kationische Polymerisation organischer Carbonate 4.2.4 Molmassen und thermisches Verhalten 4.2.5 Morphologie der Polymerschäume 4.2.6 Molekulare Struktur 4.2.7 Poröse Kohlenstoffe 4.3 Simultane Polymerisation von organischen Carbonaten und Zwillingsmonomeren 4.3.1 Theoretische Betrachtungen 4.3.2 Polymerisationsverhalten der Monomermischungen 4.3.3 Variation der Reaktionsbedingungen 4.3.4 Morphologie der Organik/SiO2-Hybridmaterialschäume 4.3.5 Molekulare Struktur der Organik/SiO2-Hybridmaterialschäume 4.3.5.1 13C {1H} CP-MAS-NMR-Spektroskopie 4.3.5.2 29Si-{1H}-CP-MAS-NMR-Spektroskopie 4.3.5.3 ATR-FTIR-Spektroskopie 4.3.5.4 Extraktionsversuche der Hybridmaterialien 4.3.5.5 Elementverteilung mittels Energiedispersiver Röntgenspektroskopie 4.3.6 Herstellung poröser Kohlenstoff- und SiO2-Schäume aus Hybridmaterialschäumen 4.3.6.1 Zusammensetzung des Hybridmaterial- und C/SiO2-Schaums 4.3.6.2 Morphologie der Kohlenstoff- und SiO2-Schäume 4.3.7 Porositätsuntersuchungen an porösen Kohlenstoff- und SiO2-Schäumen 4.3.7.1 Stickstoffsorption 4.3.7.2 Quecksilberporosimetrie 5 Zusammenfassung und Ausblick 6 Experimenteller Teil 6.1 Chemikalien 6.2 Charakterisierungsmethoden 6.3 Synthesen 6.3.1 Herstellung von Resolen 6.3.2 Herstellung eines Novolaks 6.3.3 Herstellung eines stickstoffhaltigen Phenolharzes 6.3.4 Herstellung einer flüssigen Harzmischung 6.3.5 Aushärtung der flüssigen Harze und Harzmischungen 6.3.6 Pyrolyse der ausgehärteten Phenolharze und Harzmischungen 6.3.7 Herstellung von SiC-faserverstärkten Kohlenstoffen (SiC/C) 6.3.8 Silizierung von Kohlenstoffen 6.3.9 1,1'-methylenebis(naphthalen-2-ol) 6.3.10 Catecholoxalat 6.3.11 Bis(furan-2-ylmethyl) carbonat (Difurfurylcarbonat DFC) 6.3.12 Bis(p-methoxybenzyl) carbonat (pC) 6.3.13 Bis(m-methoxybenzyl) carbonat (mC) 6.3.14 Tetrafurfuryloxysilan (TFOS) 6.3.15 2,2’-Spirobi[4H-1,3,2-benzodioxasilin] (Spiro) 6.3.16 Polymerisation von mC, pC und DFC 6.3.17 Simultane Polymerisation von Carbonaten mit Zwillingsmonomeren 6.3.18 Extraktion 6.3.19 Pyrolyse der Organik/SiO2-Hybridmaterialien 6.3.20 Siliziumdioxid-Ätzen 6.3.21 Oxidation der Organik/SiO2-Hybridmaterialien 6.3.22 Oxidation der Kohlenstoff/SiO2-Materialien Anhang Literaturverzeichnis Danksagung Selbstständigkeitserklärung Lebenslauf Persönliche Daten Ausbildung und beruflicher Werdegang Liste der Publikationen, Vorträge und Posterpräsentationen

Apresenta-se a comparação de duas metodologias para pré-concentração e determinação de Cd em amostras de águas estuarinas e água de mar. As metodologias comparadas foram a extração líquido-líquido no ponto nuvem e a extração por retenção dos analitos em fase sólida. Em ambos os métodos houve necessidade de formação de complexos de Cd previamente à extração. Dois agentes complexantes foram testados o O-O dietilditiofosfato (DDTP), e 1-(2- tiazolilazo)-2-naftol (TAN). A extração no ponto nuvem foi realizada utilizando o surfactante não iônico octil fenoxipolietoxietanol (Triton X-114) que à temperatura de \'40 graus\'C forma uma fase micelar viscosa de volume reduzido. Após separação das micelas, estas foram dissolvidas em solução de ácido nítrico facilitando a análise por ICP OES. A pré-concentração em fase sólida por retenção dos íons complexados foi realizada colocando-se uma coluna de Amberlite XAD 4 em sistema em fluxo. Foram ajustadas as vazões de carregamento da coluna e eluição de forma a aumentar os fatores de pré-concentração. Os volumes das soluções finais foram de 2 mL de forma a obter resultados em triplicata na análise por ICP OES. A quantificação foi efetuada pelo método das adições de padrão. Os dois procedimentos foram comparados considerando as eficiências relativas de pré-concentração, a facilidade para efetuar os procedimentos e a percentagem de recuperação das medidas / Two methodologies for determination of Cd in estuarine and seawater samples were studied. The methodologies for pre-concentration of analytes by surfactant-mediated cloud point extraction and solid phase retention in a resin column were compared. In both cases the prior formation of Cd ions complexes with O,O-diethyldithiophosphate (DDTP) and 1-(2-thiazolylazo)-2-naphtol (TAN) was carried out. The Cloud point extraction was attained with the non ionic surfactant ctylphenoxypolyethoxyethanol (Triton X-114) at \'40 graus\'C . The reduced volume of surfactant micelles was easily separated and dissolved using the solution containing nitric acid which facilitate the analysis by ICP OES. The solid phase pre-concentration was performed by retention of the complexed ions in the Amberlite XAD 4 resin column in a flow scheme. The flow-rates for sample loading and elution were adjusted to increase the preconcentration factor. The final volumes collected of 2 mL were further analyzed in triplicate by ICP OES. Quantification was performed by the standard addition method. Both pre-concentration procedures were compared considering the relative efficiencies, the complexity of procedures and recovery percent of results

Apresenta-se a comparação de duas metodologias para pré-concentração e determinação de Cd em amostras de águas estuarinas e água de mar. As metodologias comparadas foram a extração líquido-líquido no ponto nuvem e a extração por retenção dos analitos em fase sólida. Em ambos os métodos houve necessidade de formação de complexos de Cd previamente à extração. Dois agentes complexantes foram testados o O-O dietilditiofosfato (DDTP), e 1-(2- tiazolilazo)-2-naftol (TAN). A extração no ponto nuvem foi realizada utilizando o surfactante não iônico octil fenoxipolietoxietanol (Triton X-114) que à temperatura de \'40 graus\'C forma uma fase micelar viscosa de volume reduzido. Após separação das micelas, estas foram dissolvidas em solução de ácido nítrico facilitando a análise por ICP OES. A pré-concentração em fase sólida por retenção dos íons complexados foi realizada colocando-se uma coluna de Amberlite XAD 4 em sistema em fluxo. Foram ajustadas as vazões de carregamento da coluna e eluição de forma a aumentar os fatores de pré-concentração. Os volumes das soluções finais foram de 2 mL de forma a obter resultados em triplicata na análise por ICP OES. A quantificação foi efetuada pelo método das adições de padrão. Os dois procedimentos foram comparados considerando as eficiências relativas de pré-concentração, a facilidade para efetuar os procedimentos e a percentagem de recuperação das medidas / Two methodologies for determination of Cd in estuarine and seawater samples were studied. The methodologies for pre-concentration of analytes by surfactant-mediated cloud point extraction and solid phase retention in a resin column were compared. In both cases the prior formation of Cd ions complexes with O,O-diethyldithiophosphate (DDTP) and 1-(2-thiazolylazo)-2-naphtol (TAN) was carried out. The Cloud point extraction was attained with the non ionic surfactant ctylphenoxypolyethoxyethanol (Triton X-114) at \'40 graus\'C . The reduced volume of surfactant micelles was easily separated and dissolved using the solution containing nitric acid which facilitate the analysis by ICP OES. The solid phase pre-concentration was performed by retention of the complexed ions in the Amberlite XAD 4 resin column in a flow scheme. The flow-rates for sample loading and elution were adjusted to increase the preconcentration factor. The final volumes collected of 2 mL were further analyzed in triplicate by ICP OES. Quantification was performed by the standard addition method. Both pre-concentration procedures were compared considering the relative efficiencies, the complexity of procedures and recovery percent of results