Community Based Natural Resources Management (CBNRM) in southern Africa has gained an important role in alleviating poverty and conserving natural resources. The attention and funding CBNRM is receiving from governments, non-governmental organisations and donors is seen as one way to strengthen civil society‟s involvement in decision-making and participating in activities that contribute to a sustainable livelihood, whilst at the same time learning in their social contexts to adapt and care for the ever changing environment characterised by constraints, challenges, contradictions, new opportunities for learning and change. This study focuses on social learning in commercialisation of natural resource products in two case studies of commercial beekeeping in rural southern African contexts. In this study social learning entails a process of qualitative change taking place in a social context for the purpose of personal and social adaptation. This perspective is useful in this study as learning in the two cases, Hluleka in South Africa and Buhera in Zimbabwe involved the transition beekeeping.from traditional honey harvesting practices and subsistence beekeeping to commercial beekeeping. This study is informed by two related theoretical perspectives namely Cultural Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) and Social Learning Theory. CHAT was used as conceptual and methodological framework to inform the first phase of data gathering and analysis processes; as well as second phase data gathering. In the first phase, I gathered data through semistructured interviews, document reviews and observations to identify problems, challenges and critical incidents in learning commercial beekeeping, technically known as tensions and contradictions within the CHAT framework. These tensions and contradictions, surfaced through analysis of first phase data were used as "mirror data‟ in Intervention Workshops within CHAT's process of Developmental Work Research, which supports social learning in response to tensions and contradictions in workplace activity. Use of mirror data provided a basis for dialogue and the modelling of new solutions to identified contradictions. To interpret the social learning processes resulting from these interactions, I drew on Wals' (2007) analytical lenses, through which I was able to monitor social learning processes that emerged from the Intervention Workshop dialogues while beekeepers modelled new solutions to contradictions in learning commercial beekeeping. The findings of the study revealed that social learning in commercial beekeeping is internally and externally influenced by socio-cultural, political and economic complexities. Social learning in Intervention Workshops was supported by different knowledge bases of participants, in this study these are beekeepers, extension officers, trainers and development facilitators. Such knowledge bases were the source of information for learning and constructing model solutions. The study also revealed that learning in CBNRM workplaces can be observed across the development processes, and CHAT as a methodological tool and Wals‟ (2007) analytical tool are complementary and can be used in researching social learning in other CBNRM workplaces. The study contributes in-depth insight into participatory research and learning processes, especially within the context of CBRM in southern Africa. It gives some empirical and explanatory insight into how change-oriented social learning can emerge and be expanded in Education for Sustainable Development. It also provides learning and extension tools to work with contradictions that arise from socio-cultural and historical dimensions of learning commercialisation of natural resources in southern African context. Its other key contribution is that it provides further insight into the mobilisation of human agency and reflexivity in change oriented social learning processes of commercialisation of sustainable natural resources products and poverty alleviation processes that are critical for responding to socioecological issues and risks and development challenges in southern Africa.

University of Macau / Faculty of Law

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2003. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The Peace Parks Foundation (PPF) was established in 1997 to facilitate Transfrontier Conservation (TFCA) initiatives in the SADC region and thereby support economic development, conservation of biodiversity, as well as the promotion of regional peace and stability. To this effect, their regional planners require a thorough knowledge of the condition of areas in which the estimated actions will be carried out. To date, the PPF have used base datasets, such as land cover and population densities, in their GIS projects to support their decision making processes. However, they have realised the importance of developing rigorous methods for the extraction and generalization of biodiversity information for informed conservation decisions. The main aim of this study was, therefore, to develop a spatial framework for the generalisation and integration of data to become meaningful information that may be readily interpreted. The resultant framework represents a methodology for, firstly, identifying and, secondly, prioritizing core natural areas or units (CNU). CNUs were modelled to represent large blocks (minimum 100 km') of contiguous natural vegetation that are far from major roads and densely populated places. They were, then, ranked into three classes of importance (low, medium and high) according to an ecological value derived for each. This made the framework comprehensive in its considerations of regional biodiversity and robust enough to be used for planning at the SADC scale. By organising data and quantitative approaches logically in a robust, but rigorous, way, spatial frameworks provide the structure for combining specialized knowledge as well as scientific analysis and pragmatic politics in an effective planning process. This could guide plans which are proactive instead of reactive, visionary as well as pragmatic and well founded in research and understanding. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die Peace Parks Foundation (PPF) was gestig in 1997 om oorgrens bewarings-initiatiewe in die SADC streek te fasiliteer en daardeur steun te verleen aan ekonomiese ontwikkeling, die bewaring van biodiversiteit asook die bevordering van vrede en stabiliteit in die streek. Om dit te behaal benodig die betrokke streeksbeplanners 'n grondige kennis van die toestand van die areas waarin die beoogdede aksies uitgevoer sal word. Tot op hede het die PPF basis datastelle, van byvoorbeeld landgebruik en populasie-digtheid, ingespan m hul GIS projekte om besluitnemingsprossese te ondersteun. Daar is egter besef dat dit van hoogste belang is om deeglike metodes te onwikkel vir die onttrekking van biodiversiteits-informasie sodat ingeligte besluitneming moontlik gemaak kan word. Gevolglik was die hoof oogmerk van hierdie studie om 'n ruimtelike verwysingsraamwerk te ontwikkel wat data kan veralgemeen en integreer tot betekenisvolle inligting wat geredelik interpreteerbaar is. Die daaruit-vloeiende raamwerk stel 'n metodologie voor wat Kern Natuurlike Areas (KNA) eerstens kan identifiseer en tweedens kan prioritiseer. Hierdie KNA is gemodelleer om groot blokke (minstens 100km2 ) van aaneenlopende natuurlike plantegroei, ver van hoofpaaie en dig bevolkte gebiede, voor te stel. Hulle is hieropvolgend gesorteer in drie range van belangrikheid (laag, medium en hoog) na gelang van 'n ekologiese waarde wat vir elk afgelei is. Hierdeur is die raamwerk, in terme van voldoende oorwegings teenoor streeks-biodiversiteit, omvattend gemaak en terselfdertyd robuus vir beplanning op die SADC skaal. Deur data en kwalitatiewe benaderings logies en in 'n deeglike en robuuste wyse te organiseer, bied ruimtelike verwysingsraamwerke die struktuur om gespesialiseerde kennis met wetenskaplike analise en pragmatiese politiek te kombineer in 'n effektiewe beplanningsproses. Hierdeur kan planne geformuleer word wat proaktief is instede van reaktief, visionêr sowel as pragmaties, en terselfdertyd goed gefundeer bly op navorsing en begrip.

Thesis (MPhil) Stellenbosch University, 2014 / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Existence of natural resources in majority of African countries has been identified to support further development due to continuously increase in commodity revenues. However, the resource curse presents critical aspects of resource intensive economies such as short-term benefits of commodity revenues, limited economic diversification and unstable government. Due to natural resource abundance in Africa, extractive industries are essential in the domestic economic system, although, the disadvantages based on the resource curse theory, question the support of commodity revenues in Africa’s development. South America views the issues of extractive industries from a different perspective by analysing the related developmental approaches namely conventional extractivism, neo-extractivism and post-extractivism. While South American countries are in different transition phases of extractivism, Africa is dominated solely by conventional extractivism. This results in varying degrees of social and environmental impacts on the African continent. However, Africa’s transition towards neo- or post-extractivism will limit the problems of the resource curse and offers a more sustainable resource management of the extractive industries. The Environmental Kuznets’ Curve (EKC) supports the principle of developed and recently industrialised countries by relying on the economic development, which will reduce environmental degradation automatically by achieving a specific turning point. The three phases of EKC can be related to different stages of economic development, as well as to the three extractivism approaches. Therefore, transitions from conventional extractivism to neo-extractivism and finally to post-extractivism have to occur to stabilise economic development and reduce environmental degradation. Within this process of transition towards more sustainable extractivism approaches, the principle of “Sustainable Structural Transformation” (SST) is applicable. SST was described in the UNCTAD report (2012) as a tool to reduce environmental impacts while continuing to provide for the demand of an increasing global population. Neo- and post-extractivism approach supports the concept of SST, which primarily emphasises more efficient technologies, new economic activities, labour productivity and regulations. The foundation of SST is based on resource decoupling in order to separate economic developmental process from natural resource extraction while minimizing environmental impacts. For the application of SST and thus for the transition of extractivism, reinvestment is essential to create a diversified economy. While reinvestment can take place in various forms, the World Bank (2011) identified three types of wealth namely natural, produced and intangible capital contributing to the total wealth of a country. However, developing countries prioritise natural wealth in comparison to other forms of wealth; therefore, reinvestment has to take place in other types of wealth namely intangible and produced wealth in order to achieve sustainable development in Africa. UNCTAD (2012) considers SST as a framework without an attempt of creating a “one-size-fits-all” solution. This understanding is crucial for the transition from one phase of extractivism to another. Depending on the context of a country, tools have to be adapted to support the needed transition. These existing differences are presented in the case studies of Nigeria and Botswana, which are two developing countries in Africa but they present different stages of extractivism and resource management. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Daar is vasgestel dat die beskikbaarheid van natuurlike hulpbronne in ’n meerderheid van Afrikalande verdere ontwikkeling ondersteun deur ’n ononderbroke toename in grondstofinkomstes. Die hulpbronvloek wys egter kritisie aspekte van hulpbron-intensiewe ekonomieë uit. Van hierdie aspekte sluit in korttermynvoordele van grondstofinkomstes, beperkte ekonomiese diversifisering en onstabiele regerings. Weens die oorvloed van natuurlike hulpbronne in Afrika is ontginningsnywerhede onontbeerlik in die binnelandse ekonomiese stelsel, alhoewel die nadele wat deur die hulpbronvloekteorie uitgewys word die ondersteuning van grondstofinkomstes in Afrika se ontwikkeling bevraagteken. Suid-Amerika beskou die kwessie van ontginningsnywerhede vanuit ’n ander perspektief deur die verwante ontwikkelingsbenaderings, naamlik konvensionele ontginning, neo-ontginning en postontginning, te ontleed. Alhoewel Suid-Amerikaanse lande in ander oorgangsperiodes van ontginning verkeer, word Afrika slegs deur konvensionele ontginning oorheers. Dit lei tot wisselende grade van sosiale en omgewingsimpakte op die Afrika-kontinent. Afrika se oorgang na neo- en postontginning sal egter die uitdagings van hulpbronvloek beperk en bied ’n meer onderhoubare hulpbronbestuur van die ontginningsnywerhede. Die Omgewing-Kuznetskurwe (OKK) ondersteun die beginsel van ontwikkelde en onlangs geïndustrialiseerde lande. Hierdie ondersteuning geskied deur staat te maak op die ekonomiese ontwikkeling wat outomaties omgewingsagteruitgang sal verminder deur ’n spesifieke keerpunt te bereik. Die drie fases van die OKK kan met verskillende fases van ekonomiese ontwikkeling asook die drie ontginningsbenaderings verbind word. Om hierdie rede moet oorgange van konvensionele ontginning na neo-ontginning en uiteindelik postonginning plaasvind om die ekonomiese ontwikkeling te stabiliseer en die omgewingsagteruitgang te beperk. Die beginsel van “Onderhoubare Strukturele Transformasie” (OST) is veral toepaslik in die oorgangsproses na meer onderhoubare ontginningsbenaderings. Die OST is in die verslag van die Verenigde Nasies se Kongres van Handel en Ontwikkeling (VNKHEO) (2012) beskryf as ’n middel om omgewingsimpakte te beperk terwyl dit in die behoefte van ’n toenemend groeiende wêreldbevolking voorsien. Neo- en postontginningsbenaderings ondersteun die OST-konsep wat veral meer doeltreffende tegnologieë, nuwe ekonomiese aktiwiteite, arbeidsproduktiwiteit en regulasies benadruk. Vir die toepassing van OST en dus die verandering in ontginning is herbelegging noodsaaklik om ’n gediversifiseerde ekonomie te bewerkstellig. Alhoewel herbelegging op verskillende maniere kan plaasvind, het die Wêreldbank (2011) drie tipes rykdom geïdentifiseer, naamlik natuurlike, vervaardigde en ontasbare kapitaal wat tot die algehele rykdom van ’n land bydra. Ontwikkelende lande gee voorkeur aan natuurlike rykdom teenoor ander vorme van rykdom. Om hierdie rede moet herbelegging binne die ander vorme van rykdom plaasvind om onderhoubare ontwikkeling in Afrika teweeg te bring. Hierdie ander vorme van rykdom sluit ontasbare en vervaardigde rykdom in. VNKHEO (2012) beskou OST as ’n raamwerk wat nie poog om ’n “one-size-fits-all”-oplossing voort te bring nie. ’n Oorkoepelende benadering is kardinaal om die verandering in ontginning teweeg te bring. Afhangende van die konteks van ’n land moet middels aangepas word vir die nodige ondersteuning van die verandering. Hierdie bestaande verskille word in die gevallestudies van Nigerië en Botswana uitgewys. Dié twee lande dui op twee verskillende ontginningstadia en hulpbronbestuur.

No abstract available. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2005.

There is growing realisation world wide that the attainment of environmental sustainability is contingent upon reinstatement of community authority over management of natural resources. In acknowledgement of this imperative the government of Mozambique has formulated policies and enacted legislation to promote Community-Based Natural Resource Management. The research reported here considers the prospects for achieving CBNRM in a fishery located in a remote part of the country on the border between Mozambique and Tanzania. The central hypothesis addressed is that the fishery in historical terms was operated under a common property regime and that, under a number of forces , this has changed to an open access regime. The challenge facing government is to return the fishery to a common property regime. A conceptual framework which illustrates transformation of the fishery was developed. This was used to structure the research. Central question posed includes: what evidence is there that the fishery may have operated as common property system? what evidence is there that it now operates as an open access system? • what forces promoted such change, if indeed change has occurred? The findings are that the fishery has changed and now has the characteristics of the prospects for a return to CBNRM. Three issues are considered: who is the community? • what are the resources? and what are the management issues? It is concluded that definition of the 'community' is difficult because of historical precedents of access and use. The resource is shown to be complex including fish, water, land and plants; it also varies in tenure and space. Quite different rights of tenure issues accompany different resources. And management is complicated by international issues and apparent weaknesses in organisational structures, legislation and resources (human and financial). Evidence indicates that the people involved in the fishery are concerned about the state of the fishery and the lack of controls. They express a need for CBNRM. This study exposes the very complex nature of the fishery and suggests that failure to appreciate and understand this complexity encourages simplistic approaches to introduction of CBNRM. These are likely to fail. It is recommended that in light of the complexity elucidated by this research, the government should engage a strategic planning process with the intention of designing and implementing a process for introducing CBNRM which is constructed in the context of what is a very complex system. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2000.

Thesis (MSc (Geography and Environmental Studies))--University of Stellenbosch, 2005. / South Africa’s natural vegetation and soils, which are essential resources for agricultural practices, are becoming degraded. Natural resource disturbances can also cause extensive harm to local communities and their economies. To allow successful natural resource monitoring, there is an urgent need for integrated GIS spatial data and development of remotely sensed indicators of key ecosystems processes. Satellite remote sensing provides the most cost-effective and reliable tool for generating these spatial data. The main objective of the study is, therefore, to develop and evaluate methodologies for assessing, mapping and monitoring the condition of natural resources in southern Africa with the aid of remote sensing and GIS. The resulting integrated spatial framework represents methodologies for, firstly, identifying and accessing vegetation and soil parameters on a gradient from pristine to degraded condition; secondly, identifying, assessing, processing and modelling GIS and remotesensing spatial data to derived degradation maps, which identify rangeland condition and woody cover classes and, thirdly, comparing two satellite remote-sensing sensors (LANDSAT ETM and MODIS) and making statements of degradation. This approach could make an integrated spatial framework comprehensive in its considerations of provincial degradation mapping and robust enough to be used for monitoring on a national scale. By acquiring spatial and non-spatial data in a quantitative logically robust but accurate manner, integrated spatial frameworks provides the structure for combining specialized information as well as for analysis in an effective management programme. This could guide rangeland managers in assessing, mapping and monitoring of natural resources in a scientifically acceptable way. All of these factors emphasise the need for the development of a national rangeland monitoring strategy and monitoring system.

Thesis (MA (Political Science. International Studies)()--University of Stellenbosch, 2009. / Many African countries present the observer with a paradox: though richly endowed with mineral wealth, these countries are among the least-developed in the world. Mineral resources have historically been an important source of revenue for the state and one finds great diversity in the strategies that states have employed to access this wealth. These strategies range from direct participation in mining activity by means of state-owned companies to more indirect methods such as taxes levied on mining activity, with approaches varying not only among states, but also over time as historically certain strategies with regard to state involvement in mining have come to predominate. This study develops a typology of public/private sector configurations in the mining sector. The typology consists of three models, a direct participation, market-led and sustainability model. This typology serves as an analytical tool to investigate the impact of mining codes on sustainable development. The study concludes that in many cases the investment-oriented mining code reform undertaken by African states in the 1980s and 1990s has had a negative impact through the social and environmental costs associated with mining. Increasing recognition of these costs has resulted in the emergence of a sustainability model.

Thesis (MA)--Stellenbosch University, 2000. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: In this era of globalisation, the world is becoming more economically, politically and ecologically interdependent, that is, there is a growing mutual vulnerability between actors. The conditions of growing interdependence produce specific challenging circumstances for the achievement of particular goals, -includinq that of sustainable development. The Southern African context holds further obstacles to such development, which include poverty, inequality, a history of racial conflict and colonialism, and a regional economy on the semi-periphery of the global economy. It is my assertion that it is in the mutual self-interest of states and other stakeholders (e.g. communities) to approach this dilemma through transnational co-operation under the ethical umbrella of sustainable development. Thus this thesis seeks to discover to what extent the construction of Transborder Conservation Areas (TBCAs), relatively large areas which straddle the borders between two or more countries and cover natural systems incorporating one or more protected areas, can meet the criteria of sustainable development, given these conditions. The three primary criteria used for measuring sustainable development are community-based development; close linkages between the environment and development; and co-operation on all levels. The Kgalagadi TBCA, formally recognised on the 7th of April 1999 between South Africa and Botswana, serves as the case study. The conceptual framework used for the analysis is a theory of cooperation, as it applies to the field of International Relations. The key concepts employed here are those of interdependence, co-operation, sustainable development and institutionalisation. The research centers around three key issues: If sustainable development is the way forward for Southern Africa, do TBCAs reflect and fulfill the criteria as set forth by sustainable development? What does the experience of TBCAs in Southern Africa tell us about co-operation, recognising that TBCAs can only succeed if it has a sound base in the awareness and engagement of people? And, how best can decision-makers go about establishing TBCAs? Ultimately the thesis is a call to Southern African countries to embrace this new form of utilising the environment. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: In hierdie era van globalisering is die wêreld besig om ekonomies, polities en ekologies meer interafhanklik te word, met ander woorde, daar is 'n toenemende wedersydse kwesbaarheid tussen akteurs. Toenemende interafhanklikheid produseer spesifieke uitdagings ten opsigte van die bereiking van sekere doelwitte, insluitend volgehoue ontwikkeling. Daar is besondere hindernisse op die weg na volgehoue ontwikkeling in Suidelike Afrika, is byvoorbeeld armoede, ongelykheid, en verlede gekenmerk deur rassekonflik en kolonialisme, asook en regionale ekonomie op die semi-periferie van die globale ekonomie. Dit is in die wedersydse belang van state en ander betrokke partye (bv. gemeenskappe) om hierdie dilemma te benader deur middel van transnasionale samewerking onder die etiese sambreel van volgehoue ontwikkeling. Hierdie tesis probeer vasstel tot watter mate die skep van Transnasionale Bewaringsgbiede, of sogenaamde "Vredesparke" (Transborder Conservation Areas = TBCAs), d.w.s. relatiewe groot areas aan weerskante van die grens(-e) tussen twee of meer lance en wat natuurlike stelsels dek wat ten minste een beskermde gebied inkorporeer, kan voldoen aan die kriteria vir volgehoue ontwikkeling, gegewe die bogenoemde konteks. Die drie primêre kriteria wat gebruik word om volgehoue ontwikkeling te meet is gemeenskapsgebaseerde ontwikkeling; die hegtheid van die verhouding tussen die omgewing en ontwikkeling; en samewerking op alle vlakke. Die Kgalagadi TBCA, amptelik op 7 April 1999 tussen Suid-Afrika en Botswana erken, dien as die gevallestudie. Die konseptueie raamwerk wat gebruik word in die analise is 'n teorie van samewerking, soos dit van toepassing is op die veld van Internasionale Betrekkinge. Die sleutelkonsepte wat gebruik word is interafhanklikheid, samewerking, volgehoue ontwikkeling en institusionalisering. Die navorsing sentreer rondom drie sleutelkwessies: lndien volgehoue ontwikkeling die weg vorentoe vir Suidelike Afrika is, weerspiëel en voldoen TBCAs aan die vereistes van volgehoue ontwikkeling? Wat kan ons wys raak oor samewerking na aanleiding van ons ervaring van TBCAs in Suidelike Afrika, gegewe dat TBCAs slegs kan slaag indien dit gefundeer is op gemeenskapsbewustheid- en deelname? Laastens, wat is die beste manier waarvolgens besluitnemers TBCAs kan vestig? Ten slotte is hierdie studie 'n beroep op die besluitnemers In Suidelike Afrika om hierdie nuwe wyse waarop die omgewing benut kan word, te ondersteun.

Proponents and advocates of transfrontier conservation in southern Africa have postulated rural communities living adjacent to conservation areas as one of the main determinants of the success of such initiatives and thus they should be potential beneficiaries along with the state and the private sector. This assertion is reflected in the various memoranda of understanding (MOU), treaties, policies and agreements establishing transfrontier conservation initiatives. For community participation to be effective, the laws, policies and institutions establishing transfrontier conservation in southern Africa must lead to the empowerment of these rural communities who commonly subsist on local natural resources and perceive them as opportunities to earn a living. I derive a principle and set of criteria and indicators that are used to analyse the legal, policy and institutional framework and its implications for community participation and empowerment in transfrontier conservation in southern Africa. The Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park provides a case study. I argue that while provisions for community participation are made in the laws, policies and institutions under which transfrontier conservation is being initiated and implemented in the region, they are not sufficiently prescriptive about empowering communities to secure commitment from conservation agencies to enable communities to effectively participate in transfrontier conservation. It is suggested that as presently defined, the laws, policies and institutions may lead to community disempowerment from transfrontier conservation, as they allow too much scope for interpretations that weaken options for censure where agencies are not demonstrating commitment to community participation and empowerment in conservation. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2007.