The concept and legal consequences of the transgression of the limits of self-defense and necessity The object of this diploma thesis is criminal institute of self-defense and necessity and legal consequences of their transgression. These circumstances excluding the illegality release an act of person, who prevents a directly imminent danger or attack, from illegality as an element of the crime. We find the importance and indispensability of these institutes in possibility of use of self-help in favor of the protected interests, without a threat of penal sanction. This work is mainly focused on situations where legal conditions and limits of self- defense and necessity were transgressed, which caused their criminal liability. Even here it is desirable to apply more benevolent approach towards the offender than to other perpetrators of common crimes, because otherwise self-defense and necessity is considered a positive phenomenon. After a brief introduction, in the first part of this diploma thesis, the author deals with circumstances excluding the illegality in general and with the concept of illegality itself. In the second part, the author deals with the definition of the term and conditions of necessity and mainly focuses on explanation of the unclear and questionable elements of necessity. In...

This diploma thesis deals with the concept and legal implications of excessive self-defense (also private defense) and necessity (also distress). The two terms designate two circumstances precluding wrongfulness that the Czech Criminal Code recognizes. They have been intended to allow every person to defend himself and thus protect his rights against an attack or other forms of danger in case the state authority cannot provide for such protection. If the self-protection is executed within some acceptable boundaries that are provided by the Criminal Code, such behavior can be considered beneficial for the society and therefore nobody should be in any way punished for it. Criminal liability is only established when the given boundaries are crossed and even then there is a certain favored approach towards the perpetrator required. The intention of this diploma thesis is to address the connotations and importance of the given juridical institutes and to evaluate whether they function effectively or not, with eventual suggestions as to how to improve the result. After a short introduction the first part of the thesis deals with the concept of wrongfulness as one of the elements of a crime, and circumstances precluding the wrongfulness in general. In the end of the chapter there is a brief reflection on...

The concept and legal consequences of the transgression of the limits of self-defense and necessity The thesis is based on the criminal institutes of necessity and self-defense. The aim of the thesis is to analyse the concept of necessity and self-defence, set limits to those institutes, define cases of transgression of these limits and describe legal consequences of excess. The thesis is drawn as the analysis of current legislation regulating necessity and self- defense. Given that everyone can make use of these institutes, the thesis concentrates on the fact that the legislation in this matter should be comprehensible and expedient for the acting person and contains a thorough analysis of case-law. The comparative method is used to the lesser extent, Czech legislation is compared with legislation of some other European countries. A part of the thesis concentrates on the frequent de lege ferenda suggestions. In author's opinion, the enactment of these suggestions would help to promote legal certainty and extend the possibility to act in necessity and self-defense. The thesis is divided into an introduction, three main parts, which are further divided into chapters and subchapters, and a conclusion. Part one defines the concept of illegality as a requirement of commiting a crime, then the...

Criminal defences in Czech and Irish criminal law This thesis deals with the analysis of individual elements of criminal defences under the Czech and Irish criminal legal statutes with respect to the conclusions, which are therefrom drawn in theory and practice. The aim of this thesis is to render an overview concerning the distinctions and similarities in understanding, importance and operating of the defences in different law systems, rather than to present an exhaustive commentary on all legal institutes which exclude illegality and as such come into mind. Regarding the fact that Czech and Irish systems of law are subsumed under different legal systems, particular institutes of criminal defences cannot be based on the same rules, principles and theoretical grounds. It shall be noted, that while Czech criminal law is mainly to be found in a single piece of legislation known as the Criminal Law Act, Irish criminal law on the other hand not only has a separate statutory legislation, but also mainly depends on common law. The subject has been processed under consideration of the present-day legal regulation, whereas particular legal institutes are structured in compliance with the structure of the Czech Criminal Law Act. The topics of origin and development of defences has intentionally not been...

Thesis advisor: Richard Cobb-Stevens / This essay addresses the problems posed by proper names in regards to their relationship to that which they name (their "reference"). This relation of a name to its reference serves as a model for how language in general relates to the world as it actually is, making the question of what a name names of vital epistemological importance. The main problem posed by proper names is whether they simply denote, or whether they connote (i.e. have some informational content), and if they connote, what picture should we give of that content? This essay critiques a variety of theories about proper names, including those of Frege, Russell, Kripke, Searle, Evans, and Sainsbury. It concludes that names of unique entities do have informational content, in the form of a yet unspecified family of definite descriptions that rigidly designate an individual, which arises out of various causal chains of communication in a community. / Thesis (BA) — Boston College, 2007. / Submitted to: Boston College. College of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Philosophy. / Discipline: College Honors Program.

Esta dissertação apresenta a teoria cartesiana da livre criação das verdades eternas. Uma teoria desenvolvida por Descartes entre 1630 e 1649. Nossa pesquisa pretende expor a noção cartesiana de verdade eterna, o alcance e o significado da tese segundo a qual as verdades eternas foram criadas por Deus, as razões de sua elaboração, os problemas e as conseqüências decorrentes desta interessante teoria. Pretendemos concluir que a teoria, ao contrário do que afirmam alguns intérpretes do cartesianismo, não representa qualquer ameaça ao sistema de Descartes. / This dissertation presents the Cartesian theory on the creation of the eternal truths. A theory developed by Descartes between 1630 and 1649. Our research aims to explain the Descartes notion of the eternal truth, the scope and the meaning of the thesis according to which the eternal truths have been created by God, the reasons for its elaboration, the problems and the consequences arising from this interesting theory. We pretend to conclude that the theory, contrary to what some cartesianisms interpreters ensure, does not represent any threat to the Descartes system.

O principal objetivo desta pesquisa é analisar alguns das principais idéias envolvidas no labirinto da liberdade, um dos assuntos de grande destaque dentro da filosofia leibniziana. Por um lado, Leibniz sempre defendeu a máxima racionalidade de todos os fatos, o que acaba por indicar que todos estes estão absolutamente predeterminados. Por outro, ele procurou mostrar que todos os seres racionais são moralmente responsáveis pelos seus atos conforme suas vontades. Por meio de um grande esforço conceitual, Leibniz procurou conciliar a idéia de um destino, racionalmente delineável, junto à idéia de liberdade das ações dos seres racionais; ele não quis defender nem a pura necessidade e nem o puro acaso. O principal aliado nessa tarefa foi o Princípio de Razão Suficiente. Este princípio ganhou foi fortalecido a partir do desenvolvimento do conceito das infinitas substâncias completas (entelechia, substância individuais, mônadas), que foi elaborado gradualmente ao longo da sua vida filosófica. Uma reconstrução básica de algumas das principais teses da metafísica leibniziana permite observar como as criaturas (especialmente as racionais) passaram a ser consideras as legítimas responsáveis por suas ações, sem que o mundo representasse uma espécie de caos. / The main goal of this dissertation is to investigate some aspects of the Labyrinth of Freedom, a key subject in the Philosophy of Leibniz. On one hand, Leibniz supported the maximum rationality of all events, meaning that they are all absolutely predetermined. On the other, he tried to show that rational beings are morally responsible for their actions, and that requires free will. Through an act of great intellectual effort Leibniz tried to conciliate an idea of all embracing destiny (rationally understood) and the concept of freedom. He resisted admitting a vision of the world driven either by absolute necessity or lost to pure chance. His main ally in this task was the Principle of Sufficient Reason. This principle gained strength from the development of the concept of infinite substances (entelechia, individual substance, monades) that was gradually forged throughout the philosopher\'s life. A brief reconstruction of some of the main features of Leibniz´s metaphysics allows us to perceive how all creatures (especially rational ones) could be seen to be truly responsible for what they do and the choices they make in a rationally structured world.

Les entrepreneurs par nécessité créent une entreprise car ils ne perçoivent pas d'alternative valable d'emploi. Ils font l'objet de nombreux travaux de recherche depuis le début des années 2000, qui orientent des politiques publiques spécifiques à l'égard de cette catégorie d'entrepreneurs, en particulier en période de crise économique. Ils sont opposés, dans une dichotomie communément acceptée par la communauté de recherche, aux entrepreneurs par opportunité, poursuivant eux de lucratives opportunités d'affaires. La première partie de ce travail doctoral retrace l'émergence du concept d'entrepreneuriat de nécessité, puis une seconde partie synthétise, après une étude exhaustive de la bibliographie, les apports de la littérature dans ce champ. Une attention particulière est portée à la multiplicité des définitions. Nous démontrons dans une troisième partie que le terme d'entrepreneuriat de nécessité, largement répandu, n'est pas un concept d'identification solide, car ses significations se diluent dans l'espace et se morcellent selon les contextes individuels et socio-économiques. Le quatrième volet de cet exposé propose une typologie, issue de la littérature, en huit catégories d'entrepreneurs par nécessité, pour illustrer la variété des profils. Une étude quantitative exploratoire sur un échantillon de mille entrepreneurs permet d'apporter une première validation à cette typologie et de mesurer le poids des différentes catégories. Ce travail permet également de construire une grille d'analyse du degré de criticité de la nécessité entrepreneuriale, en développant une liste de l'ensemble des facteurs contraignants, internes ou exogènes, modifiables ou non, poussant l'individu à devenir créateur d'entreprise. Dans un objectif d'accompagnement des entrepreneurs par nécessité, afin d'en accroître la résilience, voire la réussite, la dernière partie de la recherche étudie, par la méthode biographique, les processus entrepreneuriaux, dans le cadre de la théorie de l'effectuation. Ce volet met en lumière les obstacles propres à la création d'entreprise par nécessité, en particulier la difficulté à mobiliser des ressources et un réseau de parties prenantes. Il souligne aussi le recours spontané et par défaut des entrepreneurs par nécessité aux principes de l'effectuation. Il s'interroge enfin sur les limites de la théorie de l'effectuation : ces principes sont démontrés par des entrepreneurs experts, mais leur application par des entrepreneurs par nécessité n'implique pas le succès de l'entreprise. Nos travaux concluent cependant à l'intérêt d'enseigner ces principes, pour renforcer la confiance en soi des entrepreneurs par nécessité. / Necessity entrepreneurs create ventures since they perceive they can find no other suitable work. The number of research articles on the subject has skyrocketed in the 2000s. Some of these papers influence the public policies worldwide, aiming at reducing unemployment by stimulating entrepreneurship, especially at a time of economic crisis. Necessity entrepreneurs are opposed to opportunity entrepreneurs, who pursue profitable market opportunities, in a commonly accepted dichotomy. First part of our doctoral dissertation presents how the « necessity entrepreneurship » concept developed. A second chapter summarizes the current global state of knowledge on necessity entrepreneurship, based on a thorough literature review. Particular focus is placed on the wide range of definitions. In a third part, we demonstrate that the « necessity entrepreneurship » category is not a reliable one. Although widely found in research papers, it is not a solid concept to identify entrepreneurs : its meanings vary according to regions, individuals, social and economic contexts. Fourth chapter of this work proposes a typology of necessity entrepreneurs to illustrate in eight categories the various profiles encountered in the literature. A quantitative exploratory study based on a sample of 1000 French entrepreneurs offers a first validation tool for the typology and gives percentages of entrepreneurs per profile. An operational list of all necessity factors, internal or external, unchangeable or modifiable, has then been developed to measure a degree of criticality and assign a score to necessity entrepreneurs. In order to improve the mentoring of necessity entrepreneurs, to develop their resilience and venture's success, last part of this paper is devoted to an in-depth analysis of necessity entrepreneurial processes. Therefore we used the biographical method in the framework of the effectuation theory. Specific issues and barriers related to necessity entrepreneurial venture set up have been identified, especially concerning resources gathering, funding and stakeholders' involvement. It appears necessity entrepreneurs resort to effectuation spontaneously and by default. However, although effectual principals have been developed based on expert entrepreneurs, it seems that applied by necessity entrepreneurs, they are no guaranty of success at all. As a conclusion, we demonstrate that teaching effectuation should however structure necessity entrepreneurial processes in a straightforward manner, in order to increase self-confidence and self-esteem of necessity entrepreneurs.

FundaÃÃo Cearense de Apoio ao Desenvolvimento Cientifico e TecnolÃgico / Trata-se de um estudo da estimativa da evapotranspiraÃÃo de referÃncia com a equaÃÃo de Penman-Monteith/FAO, fazendo-se uso de diferentes metodologias nos cÃlculos mÃdios diÃrios da temperatura do ar, da umidade relativa do ar e do saldo de radiaÃÃo solar. Os dados utilizados compreenderam o perÃodo de janeiro a dezembro de 2002 e foram obtidos em uma estaÃÃo meteorolÃgica automatizada, localizada no municÃpio de Paraipaba, Estado do Cearà (latitude de 3Â26â S, longitude de 39Â08â W e altitude de 31m). Para o cÃlculo das mÃdias diÃrias de temperatura e da umidade relativa do ar utilizou-se a mÃdia aritmÃtica de 24 leituras horÃrias, as equaÃÃes propostas pela FAO, pelo Instituto Nacional de Meteorologia (INMET) e pelo ServiÃo de Meteorologia do Estado de SÃo Paulo (SMESP). No cÃlculo, para obtenÃÃo do saldo de radiaÃÃo solar diÃrio, utilizaram-se as equaÃÃes de radiaÃÃo global proposta pela FAO (mÃtodo 1), por Aguiar et al. (mÃtodo 2), por Glover & McCulloch (mÃtodo 3) e por Black (mÃtodo 4). Os resultados mostram que, para a estimativa da evapotranspiraÃÃo de referÃncia com a metodologia de Penman-Monteith/FAO, podem ser utilizadas todas as equaÃÃes de temperatura mÃdia diÃria do ar apresentadas, pois o coeficiente de determinaÃÃo (RÂ) apresentou os seguintes valores quando correlacionados com o cÃlculo de ETo utilizando a mÃdia obtida pela estaÃÃo meteorolÃgica automatizada: mÃtodo FAO (0,9892), mÃtodo INMET (0,9886) e mÃtodo SMESP (0,9888). As equaÃÃes de cÃlculo da umidade relativa do ar, tambÃm, apresentaram o mesmo comportamento, sendo todas as viÃveis, obtendo-se os seguintes valores de RÂ: mÃtodo FAO (0,9972), mÃtodo INMET (0,9980) e mÃtodo SMESP (0,9817). Na estimativa do saldo de radiaÃÃo, influenciado pelas equaÃÃes apresentadas de radiaÃÃo solar global, o mÃtodo de Aguiar et al. (R = 0,3704) apresentou a maior correlaÃÃo de metodologia quando comparada com o mÃtodo da FAO. / The study was carried out in the experimental area of agribusiness Figood-ProduÃÃo de Produtos AgrÃcolas Ltda. in the Distrito de IrrigaÃÃo (irrigation district) Jaguaribe - Apodi (DIJA), Limoeiro do Norte, CearÃ, Brazil, from July to December 2008 and consisted of two experiments. In the experiment I, the treatments consisted of five irrigation frequencies: F1 - total irrigation depth applied in the morning, F2â total irrigation depth applied in the afternoon, F3 -50% of the irrigation depth applied in the morning and 50% applied in the afternoon, F4-1/3 of the irrigation depth applied in the morning, 1/3 of the irrigation depth applied at noon, 1/3 of the irrigation depth applied in the afternoon; F5 -accumulated total irrigation depth applied every two days. In the experiment II, the treatments were five different doses of nitrogen fertilizer (50, 75, 100, 125 and 150% of the standard nitrogen fertilizer recommendation) applied by fertigation, defined based in the recommended farm's fertilizer amount (from soil analysis ). The experimental design (for both experiments) was organized in randomized blocks with five treatments and four replications. In both experiments, we evaluated the following variables: plant height, plant yield, stem diameter, branch length, number of fruits per plant, fruit diameter, and fruit weight. In the first experiment the average fruit weight ranged between 52.81 and 59.05 g. In experiment II, the average fruit weight ranged between 40.00 and 63.50 g. It was also observed a direct relationship between the number of fruits per plant and plant yield. The different irrigation frequencies did not statistically influence (p > 0.05) plant height, plant yield, stem diameter, branch length, number of fruits per plant, fruit diameter, and fruit weight in the period from 0 to 190 days after the first production pruning of the fig tree cv. Roxo Valinhos. The different levels of nitrogen fertigation applied in the period from 0 to 190 days after the first production pruning of the Roxo Valinhos fig tree did not statistically influence (p > 0.05) plant height, plant yield, stem diameter, branch length, number of fruits per plant, fruit diameter, and fruit weight.

Much ado has been made regarding Descartes's understanding of the creation of what he called the "eternal truths" because he described them, paradoxically, as both the free creations of God, and necessary. While there are many varying interpretations of Cartesian modality, the issue has heretofore been treated in a vacuum, as a niche issue having little import beyond being an interesting puzzle for Descartes Scholars. I argue that this treatment is misguided, and that in order to properly understand Cartesian philosophy at all, one must properly understand Descartes's theory of modality. This, however, is no small feat; in order to understand Descartes's seemingly peculiar view on modality, one must first make sense of what Descartes understood the nature of God to be. One reason for this, I argue, is the systematic nature of Cartesian philosophy; indeed when dealing with a dense inter-connection of philosophical issues, one must move from what is more known in itself to what is more known to us, and not the other way around. I argue that in the literature on Cartesian modality, insufficient attention has been paid to the influence of the French School of Spirituality (in particular the work of Cardinal Bérulle) on the Cartesian notion of the divine. I argue that this influence pushed Descartes to criticize traditional attempts (Aquinas's in particular) to split the horns of Plato's Euthyphro dilemma as violating a proper understanding of the doctrine of divine simplicity. Descartes's commitment to a radical form of the doctrine of divine simplicity leads him to a version of divine voluntarism wherein all `things' depend on God for their existence, and God cannot have had antecedent reason to prefer the creation of anything over anything else. There is little doubt that Descartes embraced the voluntarist horn of the Euthyphro dilemma, but just what that means for Cartesian modality and philosophy generally remains a contentious issue. I argue that Descartes is best read as what I call an `agnostic quietist' regarding God (and modality generally) given textual, historical, and systematic considerations. One virtue of an agnostic quietist reading is that I am able to square the passages where Descartes discusses the inconceivability of God's power with the conclusions reached regarding God's non-deceiving nature in the Meditations and elsewhere. Further virtues that I explore are the effects that a quietist reading has on the Cartesian scientific programme, the infamous mind-body problem, Descartes's seemingly inconsistent view regarding human free-will and Descartes's refusal to engage in "theology." Traditionally, Cartesian epistemology has been understood to be a purely a priori undertaking, which succumbs to deep and insurmountable problems. One of the greatest problems facing the Cartesian was the move from the mind to the world. Simon Blackburn, for example, says of the Cartesian epistemological project in the Meditations that Descartes "has put himself on a desert island from which there is no escape." This view is echoed by, and even motivates some of the contemporary views concerning Cartesian modality. I argue, however, that a proper understanding of the Cartesian doctrine of clear and distinct ideas circumvents this famous problem. By highlighting the proper understanding and application of the doctrine of clear and distinct ideas, I show that such ideas not only guarantee the existence of an external truth-maker, but also that such ideas do not do much more than show that there is a truth-maker. I argue that in instances of clear and distinct perception, the truth of the idea is normatively certain, but what makes it true is yet to be established. In this way, clear and distinct ideas are both powerful, in terms of guaranteeing truth, and relatively unhelpful, in that further work is required in order to determine to what the ideas conform. I argue that this is the case not only for actual truths, but for some clearly intuited truths about possibility. As an illustration of my overall thesis, I address the Cartesian argument for the separability of mind and body, and entertain the various interpretations of Descartes's view of human freedom. I argue that in order to understand Cartesian views on either of these issues, one must first make sense of his modal commitments. In both of these cases Descartes claims that finite minds can know that something is possible, even though what makes it possible is well beyond what they can understand.