The occurrence of enclosed neighbourhoods has become a common phenomenon in South African cities from the early 1990’s as a direct impact of crime rates and the fear of crime. While the enclosure of neighbourhoods provide an immediate (temporary) solution to combatting crime within existing neighbourhoods, a number of (unintentional) socio-physical and spatial consequences occur. Numerous research have been done to establish the social implications of enclosed neighbourhoods in South African cities, including the City of Tshwane, while very little research have been done to establish the physical impacts of enclosed neighbourhoods on the urban form, its impact on the transport patterns or travel behaviour and consequently the increased greenhouse gas levels being emitted into the atmosphere. This study establishes the occurrence and extent of enclosed neighbourhoods within the City of Tshwane to create a generic classification system to establish the practical impact of enclosed neighbourhoods on urban form. In-depth case studies into two enclosed neighbourhoods and a neighbourhood located adjacent to an enclosed neighbourhood were conducted to examine the impact(s) of these neighbourhoods on transport patterns, travel behaviour and greenhouse gas emissions. An overview of movement networks and an investigation of the influence of the built environment versus self-selection were launched to gain insight into the different factors that might contribute to travel behaviour in general, in addition to neighbourhood enclosures and neighbourhood re-design. This brought forth the very important relationship between land use management, transport planning and the different governing bodies and policies. The ultimate results gained from the study of selected neighbourhoods clearly showed that a number of factors influence individual transport patterns and travel behaviour, such as self-selection, initial neighbourhood design and population growth. The study did however reveal that through enclosing neighbourhoods and altering its initial neighbourhood design and movement networks, travel behaviour, transport patterns and inevitably greenhouse gas emissions for the specific neighbourhoods and adjacent neighbourhoods will unavoidably change and thus impact negatively (in some ways) on the urban form. More specifically, the results gained from this study showed that those residing within and adjacent to enclosed neighbourhoods travel greater distances on an average day, compared to those who live in an ‘open’ neighbourhood. Consequently, the average household residing within an enclosed neighbourhood emit on average up to (approximately) 4600 g/km CO2 per day more than households residing in ‘open’ neighbourhoods, which result in enclosed neighbourhoods emitting up to 26% more CO2 than ‘open’ neighbourhoods. Despite these results, residents of these enclosed neighbourhoods believe that the enclosure of these once ‘open’ neighbourhoods do not affect their travel behaviour or any traffic congestion and proclaim that their number one priority is safety which they believe is achieved through the enclosure. / Dissertation (MTRP)--University of Pretoria, 2011. / gm2014 / Town and Regional Planning / unrestricted

Air pollution affects the environment negatively, boosts climate change, and is the cause of millions of deaths per year, first and foremost affecting the people living in urban areas. Since the early 20th century, many cities have been planned around cars, which are the main contributors to the bad air quality. However, after the Covid-19 pandemic, cities have been reshaped to enhance active travel and to provide more space for greenery. In London, this reassessment of the urban areas has led to the Low-Traffic Neighbourhoods (LTNs). The LTNs origins from 2019, however, most of them were implemented during the pandemic because of the crucial times demanding social distance, while also enabling people to walk and cycle more in their local borough. The LTNs only allow residents, emergency vehicles and blue badge carriers to enter, if travelling by a motorised vehicle. The scheme further aims for more greenery to be implemented. The aim of this thesis is to study the impact from the LTNs on the air quality of the local area, specifically regarding PM10 and NOX, by using openly available data from the Imperial College London. Furthermore, the existing Green Infrastructure (GI) around each sensor, as well as the traffic, has been studied and compared to the air pollutant levels. This has been done to be able to analyse the air pollutants in relation to the surrounding GI and the level of traffic. The methodology further consists of mapping the air pollutants measured by the sensors; a statistical analysis; an interview with Sally Oldfield, the Nature Conservation Manager at Islington Ecology Centre; and field studies to the sensors used in the thesis, both the ones in LTNs and the ones in non-LTNs. The boroughs included in the study are the City of London, Islington, Wandsworth, and Westminster.  Previous research about the LTNs have focused on health and social issues, and the research about traffic schemes have focused on Low Emission Zones (LEZ) and Ultra Low Emission Zones (ULEZ). Studies on the air quality impact of the Covid-19 lockdowns have been done on New York, Madrid and Barcelona. The previous research on air pollutants in urban areas show a difficulty in mapping the movement of the pollutants hence the varied variables having an impact, such as wind, weather, the height and positions of the surrounding buildings. Research on the impact on the air quality from GI in general, has shown that the efficiency is dependent on the planning, type and size of the vegetation, as well as the distance to the emission source. However, the studies on GI are uncertain in how effective it is in terms of air quality improvement.  The result of this thesis shows a decline in NOX- and PM10-values after the implementation of the LTN by all sensors. The annual patterns further show that the yearly trends of the pollutants remained, however the magnitude is lower after the implementation of the LTNs. The daily patterns show varied results, where NOX has clear connections to the traffic, and the sources of PM10 are uncertain. Lastly, the statistical analysis showed that the data series came from different distributions, except the PM10-values by one of the sensors in Islington. Although a reduction was seen by all sensors, this might be because of, e.g., the Covid-19 pandemic. Furthermore, a correlation between GI and lower values of the pollutants could be seen by some sensors, however the results varied, making it difficult to distinguish any correlation. In conclusion, the absence of traffic can be seen to reduce the air pollutants NOX and PM10, where GI might have a positive impact. Suggesting to reshape urban areas to enable active travel, and reduce the possibilities to travel by car, with the exception of blue badge carriers and emergency vehicles. Although the impact on air improvement from GI is uncertain, it is suggested to be incorporated in the planning due to its other benefits such as recreation, well- being, and biodiversity.

While sustainability issues take an ever-larger part in city planning, citizens aspirations toinclusion in projects rise. In France, the government encourages the development ofcollaboration between actors and the emergence of innovations in the creation ofsustainable neighbourhoods. These incentives allow for the development of projects thataim at being demonstrators of French know how. Through these large-scale projects,partnerships are created, thus leading to more inclusive projects and to the creation ofsynergies between actors of the creation of urban fabric. Through an in-depth study of one of these projects, this research aimed at assessing theoutcomes of the top down approach implemented by the government. The idea was tostudy the government that was implemented and its outcomes in terms of creation ofinnovation but also regarding citizen participation. To identify citizens’ aspirations forinclusion and for the creation of fitted housing solutions, in coherence with sustainabilityissues, some research about a successful participatory housing project was conducted. Through the implementation of a fitted governance system, collaboration between actorsfrom different backgrounds and with varying interests lead to the creation of a creativeprocess of innovation and to the development of many pilot projects. Through the analysisof these projects, it appeared that information and communication technologies are onetool to the implementation of a more efficient, of a more resilient city. However, theycannot be presented as one goal and need to take part of a bigger process with other toolsthat are necessary for the creation of new uses for urban dwellers. Though citizen inclusion is an aspiration from various actors of the production of the city,some limits to citizen power in a really framed process of project development wereraised. Despite a strong will, from various actors, there are still many obstacles to thecreation of fitted housing solutions that would meet the deepest expectations of citizens.

In recent years urban violence has become understood as a 'reproduced', multi-causal and socially generated phenomenon. Less is understood about why young men reproduce the majority of this violence. This thesis uses original empirical data based on thirty-two life-histories of youths living in two poor and violent neighbourhoods in Medellín, Colombia. It argues that urban violence is reproduced by male youths because it is linked to 'masculinity'; that is, the process of 'becoming men' where youths strive to fulfil productive or 'successful' models of masculinity. These processes are related to contexts of poverty, inequality and exclusion, so this thesis does not reduce the generation of urban violence to masculinity alone. Rather, understanding masculinity provides us with further insight into the reproduction of violence. This thesis further argues that male youths are disposed by their habitus - after Pierre Bourdieu - to negotiate a pathway to manhood that largely reflects traditional masculine values in their context. Striving to achieve prevailing versions of manhood contributed to some of these youths joining armed groups, such as gangs. The gang acted as a mechanism to fulfil their dispositions to become men, by providing them with a way to perform a version of 'successful' masculinity. This is prevalent in urban contexts of exclusion and high levels of social violence, because there are limited opportunities to achieve legal and dignified versions of manhood, whilst there are significant opportunities to join the local gang. The youths interviewed that did not join gangs tended to come from families that taught them to reject violence at a young age, whilst supporting them in pursuing alternative pathways to manhood. Youths that joined gangs tended to have more problems at home and often had family members already in gangs. / ESRC, and University of Bradford

<p>A decade ago the World Health Organization declared obesity to be a ‘global epidemic’. Rapidly climbing rates of excess body weight resulted in Health Canada declaring obesity as one of three major health concerns facing children today. Accordingly, there is a growing body of research examining how 'obesogenic environments' contribute to increasing prevalence. To date, multiple studies have found rates of childhood and adolescent obesity especially high in low-socioeconomic status (SES) neighbourhoods but knowledge about the specific local-level factors that shape body weight is lacking. Thus, this research focuses on examining local environmental determinants of body weight in adolescent populations living in low-socioeconomic status neighbourhoods in two cities in Southern Ontario.</p> <p>Using a mixed-method, parallel case study design, this study examines the environments in two low-SES neighbourhoods in the cities of Hamilton and Mississauga, Ontario. This study utilizes the ANGELO Framework as an analytic tool to dissect local environments. In the first phase of the study, the political and socio-cultural environments in both cities are investigated through analysis of municipal policy documents, public health websites and key informant interviews. The findings reveal that the cities each held differing health priorities and values that reflected the way they approached obesity. This phase further highlighted the integrated nature of the political and socio-cultural environments and their role in shaping other environments.</p> <p>The second phase of the study involved qualitative data collection from adolescents living in low-SES neighbourhoods (based on 11 SES neighbourhood measures). Specifically, a community mapping exercise and in-depth interviews with 31 participants were conducted in order to better understand how participants define and use neighbourhood space. The results indicate that there are differences between how urban and suburban residents defined neighbourhoods and that personal factors such as age, mobility and migration status influenced knowledge of the neighbourhood. Additionally, findings suggest that social interaction is a primary factor that influences adolescents use of neighbourhood space.</p> <p>In the third and final phase of the study, adolescent perceptions of the determinants of body weight were collected using in-depth and go-along interviews. Results of the 31 interviews revealed that adolescents perceive obese bodies as the unhealthy product of individual-level behaviours. Further exploration of environmental determinants revealed that factors in the physical and economic environments were indeed important and were often influenced by the socio-cultural environment. Participants held the view that neighbourhood space was tempting and unhealthy, and required them to self-regulate their behaviour. This research makes significant theoretical, methodological and substantive contributions to the obesity, adolescent health, and neighbourhoods and health literatures. Policy implications and future research directions are also highlighted.</p> / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

Yes / Evidence for early intervention and prevention-based approaches for im-proving social and emotional health in young children is robust. However, rates of participation in programmes are low. We explored the dynamics which affect levels of community readiness to address the issues of social and emotional health for preg-nant women, young children (0-4 years) and their mothers.Setting:A deprived inner‐city housing estate in the north of England. The estate falls within the catchment area of a project that has been awarded long-term funding to address social and emotional health during pregnancy and early childhood.Methods:We interviewed key respondents using the Community Readiness Model. This approach applies a mixed methodology, incorporating readiness scores and qualitative data. A mean community readiness score was calculated enabling the placement of the community in one of nine possible stages of readiness. Interview transcripts were analysed using a qualitative framework approach to generate con-textual information to augment the numerical scores.Results:An overall score consistent with vague awareness was achieved, indicating a low level of community readiness for social and emotional health interventions. This score suggests that there will be a low likelihood of participation in programmes that address these issues.Conclusion:Gauging community readiness offers a way of predicting how willing and prepared a community is to address an issue. Modifying implementation plans so that they first address community readiness may improve participation rates. / Better Start Bradford

This inquiry into informal networks and policy negotiations is set in the theoretical framework of network governance. It builds theory to explain informal networks by examining neighbourhood associations in post-Katrina New Orleans through a variety of qualitative methodologies including interviews, document analysis, surveying and ethnography. In New Orleans, neighbourhood associations do not engage in social-service delivery, they prioritise neighbourhood protection and neighbourhood change. They represent their neighbourhoods through a system of intensive volunteering not elections. That system burns out neighbourhood leaders and leaves associations constantly looking for new volunteers. These associations partner with non-profits, work with politicians, and engage in fierce conflict when excluded from policy negotiations. Finally, they set their agenda based upon the physical characteristics of their neighbourhoods, investing in local institutions. These findings contribute to network governance theory. New Orleans’ democracy of volunteers introduces a new form of democratic anchorage to governance theory. Actors in informal networks have varying priorities. This demonstrates the importance of early involvement by these actors in policy creation and the ways in which policy construction can ignore community. Neighbourhood associations blackmail, bribe and coerce to create their own power, showing how power at the micro-level includes not only resources and decision-making, but also interest. These findings fit into a broader theme. Negotiations with multiple actors improve policy by incorporating complex priorities and neighbourhood context into the policy system. This wider theme of how to address complexity is the policy equivalent of the wisdom of crowds. Policy-makers can either incorporate complexity such as local context and differing priorities or face the conflict and consequences of ignoring it.

<p>In four scientific papers, this thesis investigates the processes, in terms of movements of individuals, that have produced, reproduced and transformed patterns of residential segregation in Swedish cities between 1990 and 2000.</p><p>Paper 1 examines processes of immigrant concentration, and the role of the Swedish majority population in these processes. Neighbourhood transition and mobility are described and analysed for a selection of residential areas that have experienced increased immigrant concentration. The results show that low in-migration rate among Swedes, rather than high out-migration rate, has been the main driving force behind the production and reproduction of immigrant concentration areas.</p><p>Paper 2 investigates the hypothesis that distressed neighbourhoods retain their character of distress through selective migration. The socio-economic situations of in-migrants, out-migrants and stayers in the distressed neighbourhoods of Stockholm are analysed and compared, and the results show the hypothesis to be confirmed. The people who move in are more likely to be unemployed and dependent on social benefits, and have on average lower incomes than those who move out and those who remain in the neighbourhoods. </p><p>Paper 3 further investigates the selective character of the out-migration from distressed neighbourhoods. One important conclusion is that the out-migration flow from the distressed residential areas is socio-economically <i>and</i> ethnically selective. When demographic and socio-economic differences are controlled for, the likelihood of leaving the distressed neighbourhoods is much lower for an immigrant than for a Swedish-born person.</p><p>Paper 4 examines the migration flows of a whole city, Göteborg. The paper deals with some of the most common questions within segregation research; the degree of spatial concentration of different ethnic groups, processes of concentration and dispersal, the role of the minority enclaves as ports of entry to the local housing market, and how this differs between ethnic groups.</p>

In four scientific papers, this thesis investigates the processes, in terms of movements of individuals, that have produced, reproduced and transformed patterns of residential segregation in Swedish cities between 1990 and 2000. Paper 1 examines processes of immigrant concentration, and the role of the Swedish majority population in these processes. Neighbourhood transition and mobility are described and analysed for a selection of residential areas that have experienced increased immigrant concentration. The results show that low in-migration rate among Swedes, rather than high out-migration rate, has been the main driving force behind the production and reproduction of immigrant concentration areas. Paper 2 investigates the hypothesis that distressed neighbourhoods retain their character of distress through selective migration. The socio-economic situations of in-migrants, out-migrants and stayers in the distressed neighbourhoods of Stockholm are analysed and compared, and the results show the hypothesis to be confirmed. The people who move in are more likely to be unemployed and dependent on social benefits, and have on average lower incomes than those who move out and those who remain in the neighbourhoods. Paper 3 further investigates the selective character of the out-migration from distressed neighbourhoods. One important conclusion is that the out-migration flow from the distressed residential areas is socio-economically and ethnically selective. When demographic and socio-economic differences are controlled for, the likelihood of leaving the distressed neighbourhoods is much lower for an immigrant than for a Swedish-born person. Paper 4 examines the migration flows of a whole city, Göteborg. The paper deals with some of the most common questions within segregation research; the degree of spatial concentration of different ethnic groups, processes of concentration and dispersal, the role of the minority enclaves as ports of entry to the local housing market, and how this differs between ethnic groups.

Access to primary health care is an important determinant of health. Within current research there has been limited examination of neighbourhood level variations in access to care, despite knowledge that local contexts shape health. The objective of this research is to examine neighbourhood-level access to primary health care in the city of Mississauga, Ontario. Street address locations of primary care physicians were obtained from the College of Physicians and Surgeons of Ontario (CPSO) website and analyzed using geographic information systems (GIS). A 'Three Step Floating Catchment Area' (3SFCA) method was derived and used to measure multiple dimensions of access for the population as a whole, for specific linguistic groups and for recent immigrants. This research identifies significant neighbourhood-level variations in access to care for each dimension of access and population subgroup studied. The research findings contribute to a more nuanced understanding of neighbourhood-level variability in access to health care.