A técnica de Mobilização Neural (MOB) é um método não-invasivo que demonstrou clinicamente ser eficaz na redução da sensibilidade à dor e, conseqüentemente, na melhoria da qualidade de vida após a dor neuropática. O presente estudo examinou os efeitos da MOB sobre a sensibilidade dolorosa induzida pela constrição crônica (CCI) do nervo isquiático de ratos. A CCI foi realizada em ratos machos adultos, submetidos posteriormente a dez sessões de MOB, iniciadas 14 dias após a lesão. Durante o tratamento, os animais foram avaliados em testes comportamentais para a nocicepção por meio de comportamentos tais como testes para a alodinia e hiperalgesia térmica e mecânica. Ao término das dez sessões, o nervo isquiático e a medula espinal foram retirados e processados para detecção de NGF e proteína zero por análise de Western Blot. Os DRG´s foram processados para detecção de NGF e GFAP para análise de Werstern Blot e imuno-histoquímica de fluorescência. A MOB reverteu parcialmente a resposta hiperalgesica mecânica e a alodínica desde a segunda sessão, enquanto que a hiperalgesia térmica foi bloqueada desde a quarta sessão de MOB. Com relação aos ensáios de Western Blot, observamos um aumento da densidade óptica para NGF e proteína zero (PO) no nervo isquiático dos animais com CCI após tratamento com MOB. Entretanto, não foi possível observar mudanças estatísticas para o NGF quando analisamos a medula espinal em todos os grupos analisados. Nos ensaios de Western Blot e imuno-histoquímica dos DRG´s observamos uma diminuição da imunorreatividade (IR) para NGF e GFAP nos animais tratados com MOB. Assim, acreditamos que a MOB diminui os sintomas da dor neuropática induzida pela CCI do nervo isquiático, além de favorecer a regeneração do nervo isquiático devido ao aumento local de NGF e Proteína zero. / The Neural Mobilization technique is a noninvasive method that has proved clinically effective in reducing pain sensitivity and consequently in improving quality of life after neuropathic pain. The present study examined the effects of Neural Mobilization (MOB) on pain sensitivity induced by chronic constriction injury (CCI) in rats. The CCI was performed on adult male rats, submitted thereafter to 10 sessions of MOB, each other day, starting 14 days after the CCI injury. Over the treatment period, animals were evaluated for nociception using behavior tests, such as tests for allodynia and thermal and mechanical hyperalgesia. At the end of the sessions, the nerve isquiatic and spinal cord were analyzed using Western Blot assays for neural growth factor (NGF) and protein zero (PO) and the dorsal root ganglia (DRG) were analyzed using Western Blot and immunohistochemistry assays for neural growth factor (NGF) and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP). The results showed that MOB treatment induced an early reduction (in the second session) of the hyperalgesia and allodynia in CCI-injured rats, which persisted until the end of the treatment. On the other hand, only after the 4th session we observed a blockede of thermal sensitivity. Regarding cellular changes, we observed a increase of NGF and PO expression after MOB in the nerve isquiatic when compared to CCI animals. We also observed a decrease of NGF and GFAP expression after MOB in the DRG when compared to CCI animals. In spinal cord no observed statistically difference. Was observed these data provide evidence that MOB treatment reverses pain symptoms in CCI-injured rats and decreases the level of GFAP and NGF in DRG. In addition to promoting the regeneration of the isquiatic nerve due to increased local NGF and protein zero.

O fator de crescimento neural (NGF) está relacionado à dor e ao aumento de Substância P (SP). Ressonância magnética funcional de forma não invasiva investiga áreas cerebrais. O Anti-NGF é um tratamento para dor, porém não investigado em dor neuropática. Nós avaliamos no modelo CCI a resposta comportamental e o envolvimento do NGF e da SP após tratamento com o Anti-NGF. Nós observamos NGF aumentado a longo prazo no gânglio da coluna posterior (DRG) e na medula espinal, já a SP aumentada no DRG em ambos os tempos e apenas tardiamente na medula espinal. O tratamento com Anti-NGF diminuiu a nocicepção dos animais. O Anti-NGF reverteu os altos níveis de NGF e SP no DRG e na medula espinal. Houve aumento de Fos no grupo CCI e diminuição após tratamento com Anti-NGF no córtex cingulado anterior. Observamos modificações da conectividade do tálamo, córtex somatossensorial primário e córtex cingulado com todo o encéfalo. Esperamos que estes resultados possam ser usados para o desenvolvimento de uma estratégia terapêutica que auxilie pacientes com dor neuropática crônica. / Nerve growth factor (NGF) is related to pain and increase of Substance P (SP). Non-invasively functional magnetic resonance imaging investigates brain areas. Anti-NGF is a treatment for pain, but not investigated in neuropathic pain. We evaluated the behavioral response and the involvement of NGF and SP in the CCI model after Anti-NGF treatment. We observed increased long-term NGF in the dorsal root ganglion (DRG) and spinal cord, as well as increased SP in DRG at both time and only late in the spinal cord. Treatment with Anti-NGF decreased the nociception of the animals. Anti-NGF reversed high levels of NGF and SP in DRG and spinal cord. There was an increase in Fos in CCI group and a decrease after Anti-NGF treatment in the anterior cingulate cortex. We observed changes in the connectivity of the thalamus, primary somatosensory cortex and cingulate cortex with the entire brain. We hope that these results can be used to develop a therapeutic strategy that will help patients with chronic neuropathic pain.

O uso de células-tronco mesenquimais (CTMs) na medicina regenerativa, principalmente quando associado ao sistema nervoso, requer alternativas em relação à via de aplicação. A associação da terapia celular com a nanotecnologia para uso em neurociências, desenvolvida nesse trabalho, é uma abordagem inovadora no Brasil. Dessa forma, as matrizes de nanofibras, produzidas pela técnica de electrospinning (ES), funcionam como suportes para a proliferação e diferenciação celular proporcionando uma alternativa para a reconstituição do tecido lesado. O processo de regeneração do tecido neural pode ser aperfeiçoado com a liberação controlada de fatores neurotróficos, através do uso dessas matrizes. Entre esses fatores, encontra-se o NGF (Nerve Growth Factor – fator de crescimento neural), o qual exerce um papel central no desenvolvimento, manutenção e sobrevivência dos neurônios. Além disso, características de superfície das matrizes, como o alinhamento de nanofibras, podem estimular a diferencição neural. O objetivo principal deste trabalho foi desenvolver matrizes de nanofibras alinhadas e não alinhadas com e sem o NGF incorporado, através da técnica ES de emulsão. Além disso, objetivou-se avaliar o comportamento celular, bem como a capacidade de diferenciação neural das CTMs, sobre as estruturas tridimensionais desenvolvidas. As CTMs foram extraídas da polpa de dentes decíduos esfoliados humanos. Quatro grupos de scaffolds foram desenvolvidos, caracterizados e avaliados: scaffolds com fibras randomizadas e com fibras alinhadas, sendo cada tipo com e sem o NGF incorporado. As análises físico-químicas realizadas foram morfologia, diâmetro das fibras e degradabilidade do biomaterial. Os parâmetros biológicos avaliados foram morfologia, adesão, viabilidade e proliferação celular, bem como a citotoxicidade frente ao biomaterial. A diferenciação neural foi quantificada através da expressão dos genes neurais nestina, β- III tubulina e NSE (enolase específica para neurônios). As matrizes de nanofibras produzidas mostraram-se satisfatórias para o cultivo de CTMs, mimetizando a estrutura física da matriz extracelular (MEC). Além disso, a técnica utilizada permitiu a obtenção de estruturas com nanofibras alinhadas e randomizadas. As CTMs cultivadas nas matrizes foram capazes de aderir e proliferar com vantagens para adesão nas matrizes alinhadas contendo o NGF, em relação às matrizes alinhadas controle. As estruturas produzidas não apresentaram características tóxicas permitindo que as CTMs mantivessem a viabilidade ao longo do tempo. A avaliação da diferenciação neural das CTMs indicou que todos os grupos de matrizes foram capazes de promover o aumento da expressão de genes neurais. Tal capacidade foi observada tanto para CTMs cultivadas sobre as matrizes com o meio controle quanto com o meio de indução neural. Esses achados mostram a possível influência das características químicas e topográficas providas pelos substratos produzidos. As características da matriz artificial permitem que as CTMs respondam adequadamente ao microambiente e expressem genes neurais, podendo auxiliar na regeneração tecidual quando aplicada em lesões do sistema nervoso. / The use of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) in regenerative medicine, particularly when associated with the nervous system, requires alternatives with respect to cell application methods. The association of cellular therapy with nanotechnology for use in neuroscience, developed with this work, is an innovative approach in Brazil. Scaffolds produced by electrospinning (ES) technique act as supports for cell proliferation and differentiation, providing an alternative to reconstitute the damaged tissue. The process of neural tissue regeneration can be improved through the controlled release of neurotrophic factors from the scaffolds. Among these factors, NGF (Nerve Growth Factor) plays a central role in the development, maintenance and survival of neurons. Furthermore, surface characteristics of nanofibers, such as alignment, can stimulate neural differentiation. The main objective of this study was to develop aligned nanofiber scaffolds and random nanofiber scaffolds with and without NGF incorporated through emulsion ES. In addition it was aimed to characterize the physico-chemical properties of the scaffolds, related to the extracellular matrix (ECM) and evaluate the cell behavior, as well as the neural differentiation on these three-dimensional devices. The MSCs were extracted from the dental pulp of human exfoliated deciduous teeth. Four groups of scaffolds were developed, characterized and evaluated: scaffolds with randomized fibers and with aligned fibers, each type with and without NGF incorporated. The physico-chemical analyzes performed were morphology, fiber diameter and degradability of the biomaterial. The biological parameters evaluated were cell morphology, adhesion, proliferation and viability, as well as cytotoxicity by the biomaterial. The neural differentiation was quantified by measuring gene expression for the neural genes nestin, β-III tubulin and NSE (neuron-specific enolase). The scaffolds produced demonstrated a satisfactory environment for MSC growth, mimicking the ECM physical structure. Furthermore, the technique allowed for the production of scaffolds with aligned and with randomized nanofibers. MSCs cultured on scaffolds were able to adhere and proliferate, with better adhesion performance on aligned nanofiber scaffolds with NGF incorporated, when compared to aligned nanofiber scaffolds control. The devices produced showed nontoxic characteristics permitting MSCs to maintain their viability over time. The evaluation of MSC neural differentiation indicated that all groups of scaffolds were able to upregulate neural genes expression. Such ability was observed for both MSCs cultured on scaffolds with control medium as on scaffolds under neural induction medium. These features provided by this artificial ECM permit proper MSC response to microenvironment, leading to neuronal genes expression, which could improve tissue regeneration when applied to nerve lesions.

Pain is a major public health issue throughout the world. Increased understanding of the different forms of pain and identification of susceptibility genes could contribute to improved treatments. The main aims of this thesis were to identify the underlying genetic causes of pain by studying two large families affected with migraine and pain insensitivity, respectively. Migraine is one of the most common neurovascular disorders, affecting over 12% of the western population. The genetic contribution to migraine is about 50% according to family and twin studies. To identify novel susceptibility loci for migraine, we performed a genome-wide screen in a large family with migraine from northern Sweden. Linkage analysis revealed significant evidence of linkage (LOD=5.41) on chromosome 6p12.2-p21.1. A predisposing haplotype spanning 10 Mb was inherited with migraine in all affected members of the pedigree. Further fine-mapping of multiple SNP markers restricted the disease critical region to 8.5 Mb. Nine candidate genes were sequenced, revealing no disease-associated polymorphisms in SLC29A1, CLIC5, PLA2G7, IL17, SLC25A27 and TNFRSF21, but rare novel polymorphisms segregating with the disease haplotype in EFHC1, RHAG and MEP1A. EFHC1 has recently been shown to be involved in epilepsy, which is interesting considering the link between migraine and epilepsy. However, association analysis of EFHC1 revealed no difference between patients and controls, suggesting that this gene is not a risk factor for migraine. The combination of the two polymorphisms in RHAG and MEP1A could, however, not be found in any control individuals, indicating that they might be involved in genetic predisposition to migraine in this family. Disorders with reduced pain sensitivity are very rare, since pain perception is essential for survival. A number of disorders have still been identified with pain insensitivity and peripheral nerve degeneration as major clinical signs, including the hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathies (HSAN). In order to identify novel susceptibility genes for HSAN V, we performed a genome-wide screen in a large consanguineous pedigree from a small village in northern Sweden. A homozygous region identical-by-descent was identified on chromosome 1p11.2-p13.2 in the three most severely affected patients. Subsequent analysis of candidate genes revealed a missense mutation in a conserved region of the nerve growth factor beta (NGFB) gene, causing a drastic amino acid change (R211W) in the NGF protein. NGF is important for the development and maintenance of the sympathetic and sensory nervous system and is therefore likely to be involved in disease. Functional analysis revealed that mutant NGF failed to induce neurite outgrowth and cell differentiation in PC12 cells. Furthermore, almost no mutant NGF was secreted by COS-7 cells, indicating that the processing and/or secretion of the protein might be disrupted. In conclusion, these findings present a novel migraine locus on chromosome 6 and identification of two rare polymorphisms that might be risk factors for migraine. Furthermore, a mutation in NGFB was found to cause complete loss of deep pain perception, which represents a very interesting model system to study pain mechanisms.

Yra žinoma, jog nervinės ląstelės gali regeneruoti savo aksonus po periferinės, o tam tikrais atvejais ir po centrinės nervų sistemos pažeidimų. Tačiau aksonų augimas yra sudėtingas, o jo reguliacija turi kritinę įtaką tiek neuronų vystymęsi, tiek regeneracijoje. Vekiami aplinkinių ląstelių, išskiriamų pritraukiančiųjų ir atstumiančiųjų molekulių, aksonai augdami nuolat keičia augimo kryptis iki kol pasiekia galutinius taikinius. Dorsalinių ragų ganglijų (DRG) aksonų augimas priklauso nuo semaforinų klasės molekulių. Sekretuojantys, ar su membrana surišti semaforinai dalyvauja įvairiuose biologiniuose procesuose, tokiuose, kaip centrinės ir periferinės nervų sistemos (CNS ir PNS) vystymęsi ir regeneracijoje, širdies ir kraujagyslių vystymęsi ir imuninės sistemos funkcijose. DRG aksonų vystymasis ir išlikimas smarkiai priklauso nuo nervų augimo faktoriaus (NGF). Darbo tikslas buvo įvertinti NGF koncentracijos įtaką DRG aksonų augimo atsakams į semaforiną 3A. 15 parų pelių embrionų DRG buvo preparuojami iš C57/Bl linijos pelių embrionų. DRG neuronų auginimui naudoti sterilūs dengiamieji stikleliai buvo padengiami poli-L-lizino 0,01 mg/ml ir laminino 0,01 mg/ml tirpalu, pagamintu GBSS terpėje. Aksonų augimo kūgelių vertinimas buvo atliekamas praėjus 60 minučių, o aksonų ilgio vertinimas - praėjus 16 valandų po DRG pasodinimo. Tam, kad nustayti DRG apoptozės lygį, DRG neuronuose priklausomai nuo NGF koncentracijos buvo įvertinta Bcl-2, Bax, c-jun genų raiška, naudojant RT - PGR... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / It is known that nerve cells can regenerate their axons after damage to peripheral and in some cases central nervous system (PNS and CNS). However, axon growth over longer distances, especially in central nervous system, is complicated. Regulation of axon growth is a critical event both in neuronal development and regeneration. To reach their proper targets, axons rely upon the actions of attractive and repulsive guidance molecules. It is known that growth of dorsal root ganglion (DRG) axons depend on guidance molecules of semaphorin class. Secreted and membrane bound semaphorins participate in diverse biological processes, including development and regeneration of central and peripheral nervous system, cardiovascular development, and immune system functioning. In addition to regulation of DRG axon growth by semaphorin class molecules, DRG axon growth and survival is strongly dependent on nerve growth factor (NGF). The aim of this study was to evaluate responses of DRG axons to semaphorin 3A in dependence of NGF concentration. DRG were dissected from C57/Bl mice E15 embryos in dissection HBSS/glucose medium. DRG were plated on cover slips coated with laminin and poly-L-lysine and grown in Neurobasal medium supplemented with 2% of B27 supplement. To evaluate collapse rate the morphology of axons growth cones were evaluated after 60 minutes and axons length were evaluated 16 hours after DRG plating. To evaluate DRG survival and level of apoptosis in dependence of NGF... [to full text]

Les cellules gliales sont essentielles au fonctionnement du système nerveux. Dans la rétine, les cellules gliales de Müller assurent à la fois l’homéostasie du tissu et la protection des neurones, notamment celle des cellules ganglionnaires de la rétine (CGRs). L’hypothèse principale de la thèse est que les cellules de Müller joueraient un rôle primordial dans la survie neuronale tant au plan de la signalisation des neurotrophines/proneurotrophines par suite d’une blessure que lors des mécanismes d’excitotoxicité. Contrairement au brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), le nerve growth factor (NGF) n’est pas en mesure d’induire la survie des CGRs après une section du nerf optique. Le premier objectif de la thèse a donc été de localiser les récepteurs p75NTR et TrkA du NGF dans la rétine adulte et d’établir leur fonction respective en utilisant des ligands peptidomimétiques agonistes ou antagonistes spécifiques pour chacun des récepteurs. Nos résultats ont démontré que TrkA est surexprimé par les CGRs après l’axotomie, tandis que p75NTR est spécifiquement exprimé par les cellules de Müller. Alors que NGF n’est pas en mesure d’induire la survie des CGRs, l’activation spécifique de TrkA par des ligands peptidomimétique est nettement neuroprotectrice. De façon surprenante, le blocage sélectif de p75NTR ou l’absence de celui-ci protège les CGRs de la mort induite par l’axotomie. De plus, la combinaison de NGF avec l’antagoniste de p75NTR agit de façon synergique sur la survie des CGRS. Ces résultats révèlent un nouveau mécanisme par lequel le récepteur p75NTR exprimé par les cellules gliales de Müller peut grandement influencer la survie neuronale. Ensuite, nous avons voulu déterminer l’effet des proneurotrophines dans la rétine adulte. Nous avons démontré que l’injection de proNGF induit la mort des CGRs chez le rat et la souris par un mécanisme dépendant de p75NTR. L’expression de p75NTR étant exclusive aux cellules de Müller, nous avons testé l’hypothèse que le proNGF active une signalisation cellulaire non-autonome qui aboutit à la mort des CGRs. En suivant cette idée, nous avons montré que le proNGF induit une forte expression du tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) dans les cellules de Müller et que l’inhibition du TNF bloque la mort neuronale induite par le proNGF. L’utilisation de souris knock-out pour la protéine p75NTR, son co-récepteur sortiline, ou la protéine adaptatrice NRAGE a permis de montrer que la production de TNF par les cellules gliales était dépendante de ces protéines. Le proNGF semble activer une signalisation cellulaire non-autonome qui cause la mort des neurones de façon dépendante du TNF in vivo. L’hypothèse centrale de l’excitotoxicité est que la stimulation excessive des récepteurs du glutamate sensibles au N-Methyl-D-Aspartate (NMDA) est dommageable pour les neurones et contribue à plusieurs maladies neurodégénératives. Les cellules gliales sont soupçonnées de contribuer à la mort neuronale par excitotoxicité, mais leur rôle précis est encore méconnu. Le dernier objectif de ma thèse était d’établir le rôle des cellules de Müller dans cette mort neuronale. Nos résultats ont démontré que l’injection de NMDA induit une activation du nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) dans les cellules de Müller, mais pas dans les CGRs, et que l’utilisation d’inhibiteurs du NF-κB empêche la mort des CGRs. De plus, nous avons montré que les cellules de Müller en réaction à l’activation du NF-κB produisent la protéine TNFα laquelle semble être directement impliquée dans la mort des CGRs par excitotoxicité. Cette mort cellulaire se produit principalement par l’augmentation à la surface des neurones des récepteurs AMPA perméables au Ca2+, un phénomène dépendant du TNFα. Ces donnés révèlent un nouveau mécanisme cellululaire non-autonome par lequel les cellules gliales peuvent exacerber la mort neuronale lors de la mise en jeu de mécanismes excitotoxiques. / Glial cells are essential for the functioning of the nervous system. In the retina, the Müller glial cells ensure the homeostasis of this tissue as well as the protection of neurons including the retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). The main hypothesis of this thesis is that Müller cells play a predominant role in neuronal survival both at the levels of neurotrophin/proneurotrophin signaling following injury and excitotoxic mechanisms. Unlike the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), the nerve growth factor (NGF) is unable to induce RGCs survival following optic nerve transection. The first objective of the thesis was therefore to describe the expression of the two receptors of NGF, p75NTR and TrkA, in the adult retina and to address their functional role by using peptidomimetic agonistic or antagonistic ligands specific for each receptor. Our results showed that TrkA is overexpressed by RGCs following axotomy, whereas p75NTR is specifically expressed by Müller cells. While NGF by itself does not promote RGC survival, selective activation of TrkA receptors using peptidomimetic ligands is markedly neuroprotective. Surprisingly, selective blockers of p75NTR, or the absence of p75NTR, protect RGCs from axotomy-induced death. Moreover, combination of NGF or TrkA agonists with p75NTR antagonists functions synergistically to enhance RGC survival. These results reveal a new mechanism by which p75NTR expression by Müller glia may profoundly influence neuronal survival. Next, we wanted to address the effect of proneurotrophins in the adult retina. We showed that injection of proNGF induces the death of RGCs in rats and mice by a p75NTR-dependent signaling mechanism. Expression of p75NTR in the adult retina being confined to Müller glial cells, we tested the hypothesis that proNGF activates a non-cell autonomous signaling pathway to induce RGC death. Consistent with this notion, we showed that proNGF induced a robust expression of tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) in Müller cells, and that genetic or biochemical ablation of TNFα blocked proNGF-induced death of retinal neurons. Mice rendered null for p75NTR, its co-receptor sortilin, or the adaptor protein NRAGE were defective in proNGF-induced glial TNFα production and did not undergo proNGF-induced retinal ganglion cell death. We concluded that proNGF activates a non-cell autonomous signaling pathway that causes TNFα-dependent death of retinal neurons in vivo. The central hypothesis of excitotoxicity is that excessive stimulation of neuronal N-Methyl-D-Aspartate (NMDA)-sensitive glutamate receptors is harmful to neurons and contributes to a variety of neurological disorders. Glial cells have been proposed to participate in excitotoxic neuronal loss, but their precise role is poorly defined. In this in vivo study, we showed that NMDA induces a strong NF-κB activation in Müller glia, but not in retinal neurons. Intriguingly, NMDA-induced death of retinal neurons was effectively blocked by inhibitors of NF-κB activity. We demonstrated that TNFα protein produced in Müller glial cells via an NMDA-induced NF-κB dependent pathway plays a crucial role in the excitotoxic loss of retinal neurons. This cell loss occurs mainly through a TNFα-dependent increase in Ca2+-permeable AMPA receptors on susceptible neurons. Thus, our data reveal a novel non-cell-autonomous mechanism by which glial cells can profoundly exacerbate neuronal death following excitotoxic injury.

The imidazoline I1 receptor (I1-R) is a novel receptor found primarily in the brain and nervous tissue where it modulates neurotransmission. It is named for its high affinity for compounds with an imidazoline structure such as the anti-hypertensive drugs, clonidine and moxonidine. The imidazoline receptor antisera-selected protein (IRAS) is the putative clone of the I1-R. IRAS has a unique structure, which does not resemble any other receptor protein. IRAS is present throughout the body with highest levels in the brain. There is a growing body of research examining the physiological roles of IRAS as an I1-R, in cell survival, migration and protein trafficking. However, there is little research into its neuronal functions. IRAS interacts with other membrane receptors: the mouse homologue of IRAS reorganises the actin cytoskeleton through interaction with the α5β1 fibronectin receptor. IRAS also binds insulin receptor substrate 4 and enhances insulin-induced extracellular signal-regulated kinase1/2 (ERK1/2) activation. Actin reorganisation and ERK1/2 activation are important for the development of neurites during neuronal differentiation. Therefore, the work described in this thesis aimed to investigate the effects of IRAS on neuronal differentiation. Studies reported in this thesis also aimed to investigate whether IRAS affected ERK1/2 signalling of other receptors involved in neuronal differentiation such as the NGF receptor, TrkA, and lysophospholipid receptors. The above aims were carried out in neuronal model PC12 cells transfected with either IRAS or a vector plasmid. Fluorescence microscopy and Western blotting techniques were used to examine the effect of IRAS on cell morphology and ERK1/2 signalling. The work described in this thesis found that IRAS reorganises the actin cytoskeleton and enhances growth cone development in PC12 cells. This study also shows that IRAS differentially enhances or inhibits NGF-induced PC12 cell differentiation depending on the presence or absence of serum in the media. In full-serum conditions, IRAS enhanced neurite outgrowth and this was accompanied by an increase in ERK1/2 activation. In serum-starved cells, IRAS inhibited neurite outgrowth with similar levels of ERK1/2 activation observed in vector- and IRAS-transfected cells. Finally, studies presented in this thesis found that IRAS enhances lysophosphatidic acid-induced ERK1/2 activation and that IRAS interacting with lysophospholipid receptor agonists present in serum is a potential mechanism by which it enhances NGF-induced ERK1/2 activation in full-serum conditions. / http://proxy.library.adelaide.edu.au/login?url= http://library.adelaide.edu.au/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=1345359 / Thesis (Ph.D.) - University of Adelaide, School of Medical Sciences, 2008

Στην παρούσα διατριβή μελετήθηκε το ντοπαμινεργικό και γλουταμινεργικό σύστημα των βασικών γαγγλίων, χρησιμοποιώντας δύο διαφορετικά μοντέλα ζώων. Ο πρώτος στόχος ήταν να εξεταστεί εάν η μεταφορά του γονιδίου TrkA σε νευρώνες της μέλαινας ουσίας (SN) ενήλικων επίμυων επιδρά στις νευροχημικές τους ιδιότητες, απουσία ή παρουσία εξωγενούς νευροαυξητικού παράγοντα (NGF) στο ραβδωτό σώμα. Η εκτοπική έκφραση του TrkA στην SN οδήγησε σε σημαντική μείωση του mRNA της υδροξυλάσης της τυροσίνης (TH), της TH ανοσοδραστικότητας και του mRNA του DAT στη δεξιά SN σε σύγκριση με την ετερόπλευρη, ενώ δεν βρέθηκε καμία διαφορά στο mRNA των υποδοχέων ντοπαμίνης D2 και της ειδικής δέσμευσης του [3Η]raclopride στην SN. Δεν παρατηρήθηκαν μεταβολές στις θέσεις δέσμευσης του [3Η]WIN35428 και της ανοσοδραστικότητας του DAT στο ομόπλευρο ραβδωτό σώμα, καθώς και στις θέσεις δέσμευσης των μετασυναπτικών υποδοχέων ντοπαμίνης D1 και D2, όπως καθορίζεται από τους ιχνηθέτες [3H]SCH23390 και [3Η] raclopride, αντίστοιχα. Επιπλέον, δεν βρέθηκαν σημαντικές μεταβολές στους υποδοχείς NMDA και AMPA. Τα αποτελέσματα αυτά δείχνουν ότι η εκτοπική έκφραση του TrkA στην SN ρυθμίζει αρνητικά την ΤΗ και οδηγεί σε ανεξάρτητες από τον NGF αποκρίσεις. O δεύτερος στόχος της διατριβής ήταν η μελέτη του ντοπαμινεργικού συστήματος σε ένα μοντέλο DYT1 δυστονίας μυός. Σε διαγονιδιακούς μυς με υπερκινητική και μη υπερκινητική συμπεριφορά παρατηρήθηκε μείωση των υποδοχέων ντοπαμίνης D2 στο ραβδωτό σώμα, όπως προσδιορίστηκε από τη δέσμευση του [3H]raclopride, και τoυ mRNA των D2 στην SNpc, σε σχέση με μη διαγονιδιακούς μυς. Δεν παρατηρήθηκε διαφορά στη δέσμευση του [3H]SCH23390 ή του [3H]WIN35428 στο ραβδωτό σώμα διαγονιδιακών μυών. Τα δεδομένα προτείνουν μία πιθανή εμπλοκή της ντοπαμινεργικής νευροδιαβίβασης στην παθοφυσιολογία της DY1 δυστονίας. / In the present thesis we examined the dopaminergic and glutamatergic neurotransmission systems of basal ganglia, using two different animal models. The first goal was to investigate whether TrkA gene transfer into substantia nigra (SN) neurons of adult rats influence some of their neurochemical properties, in the absence or presence of exogenous nerve growth factor (NGF) delivery in the striatum. Ectopic expression of TrkA in SN resulted in a significant decrease of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) immunoreactivity, TH mRNA and DAT mRNA expression in the right SN compared to the contralateral side, while no difference was found in the mRNA expression of D2 DA receptors and [3H]raclopride binding in SN. No significant changes were seen in the density of DAT by measuring [3H]WIN35428 binding sites and DAT immunoreactivity in the ipsilateral striatum, as well as in the number of postsynaptic striatal D1 and D2 receptor binding sites, as determined by [3H]SCH23390 and [3H]raclopride, respectively. Furthermore, no significant changes were found in NMDA and AMPA receptors. These data suggest that ectopic TrkA expression in SN downregulates TH in nigral dopaminergic neurons and elicits NGF-independent responses. The second goal of the present thesis was to examine the dopaminergic system of basal ganglia in a mouse model of DYT1 dystonia. A decrease in striatal D2 binding sites, measured by [3H]raclopride binding, and D2 mRNA expression in substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) was revealed in affected and unaffected transgenic mice when compared with non-transgenic. No difference in D1 receptor binding and DAT binding, measured by [3H]SCH23390 and [3H]WIN35428 binding, respectively, was found in striatum of transgenic animals. These data suggest a possible involvement of dopamine neurotransmission in the pathophysiology of DYT1 dystonia.

Nitric oxide is a ubiquitous signaling molecule with both physiological and pathological functions in biological systems. Formed by the enzymatic conversion of arginine to citrulline, NO, has known roles in circulatory, immune and nervous tissues. In the nervous system nitric oxide has been implicated in long-term potentiation, neurotransmitter release, channel function, neuronal protection and neuronal degeneration. Much of our work has focused on yet another role for nitric oxide in cells, namely, neuronal differentiation. During development, neuronal differentiation is closely coupled with cessation of proliferation. We use nerve growth factor (NGF)-induced differentiation of PC12 pheochromocytoma cells as a model and find a novel signal transduction pathway that blocks cell proliferation. Treatment of PC12 cells with NGF leads to induction of nitric oxide synthase (NOS). The resulting nitric oxide (NO) acts as a second messenger, activating the p21(WAF1) promoter and inducing expression of p21(WAF1) cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor. NO activates the p21(WAF1) promoter by p53-dependent and p53-independent mechanisms. Blocking production of NO with an inhibitor of NOS reduces accumulation of p53, activation of the p21(WAF1) promoter, expression of neuronal markers, and neurite extension. To deternine whether p21(WAF1) is required for neurite extension, we prepared a PC12 line with an inducible p21(WAF1) expression vector. Blocking NOS with an inhibitor decreases neurite extension, but induction of p21(WAF1) with isopropyl-1-thio-beta-D-galactopyranoside restored this response. Levels of p21(WAF1) induced by isopropyl-1-thio-beta-D-galactopyranoside were similar to those induced by NGF. Therefore, we have identified a signal transduction pathway that is activated by NGF; proceeds through NOS, p53 and p21(WAF1) to block cell proliferation; and is required for neuronal differentiation by PC12 cells. In further studies of this pathway, we have examined the role of MAP kinase pathways in neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) induction during the differentiation of PC12 cells. In NGF-treated PC12 cells, we find that nNOS is induced at RNA and protein levels, resulting in increased NOS activity. We note that neither nNOS mRNA, nNOS protein nor NOS activity is induced by NGF treatment in cells that have been infected with a dominant negative Ras adenovirus. We have also used drugs that block MAP kinase pathways and assessed their ability to inhibit nNOS induction. Even though U0126 and PD98059 are both MEK inhibitors, we find that U0126, but not PD98059, blocks nNOS induction and NOS activity in NGF-treated PC12 cells. Also, the p38 kinase inhibitor, SB 203580, does not block nNOS induction in our clone of PC12 cells. Since the JNK pathway is not activated in NGF-treated PC12 cells, we determine that the Ras-ERK pathway and not the p38 or JNK pathway is required for nNOS induction in NGF-treated PC12 cells. We find that U0l26 is much more effective than PD98059 in blocking the Ras-ERK pathway, thereby explaining the discrepancy in nNOS inhibition. We conclude that the Ras-ERK pathway is required for nNOS induction. The activation of soluble guanylate cyclase and the production of cyclic GMP is one of the best characterized modes of NO action. Having shown that inhibition of NOS blocks PC12 cell differentiation we tested whether nitric oxide acts through soluble guanylate cyclase to lead to cell cycle arrest and neuronal differentiation. Unlike NOS inhibition, the inhibition of soluble guanylate cylcase does not block the induction of neuronal markers. Moreover, treatment of NGF-treated, NOS-inhibited PC12 cells with a soluble analog of cyclic GMP was unable to restore differentiation of those cells. Hence, cGMP is not a component of this pathway and we had to consider other mechanisms of NO action. It has become increasingly evident that another manner by which NO may exert its effects is by S-nitrosylation of cysteine residues. We tested, in vitro whether nitric oxide may control p53 by S-nitrosylation and inactivation of the p53 negative regulator, Hdm2. Treatment of Hdm2 with a nitric oxide donor inhibits Hdm2-p53 binding, the first step in Hdm2 regulation of p53. The presence of cysteine or DTT blocks this inhibition of binding. Moreover, nitric oxide inhibition of Hdm2-p53 binding was found to be reversible. Sulfhydryl-sensitivity and reversibility are consistent with nitrosylation. Finally, we have identified a critical cysteine residue that nitric oxide modifies in order to disrupt Hdm2-p53 binding. Mutation of this residue from a cysteine to an alanine does not interfere with binding but rather eliminates the sensitivity of Hdm2 to nitric oxide inactivation.

O uso de células-tronco mesenquimais (CTMs) na medicina regenerativa, principalmente quando associado ao sistema nervoso, requer alternativas em relação à via de aplicação. A associação da terapia celular com a nanotecnologia para uso em neurociências, desenvolvida nesse trabalho, é uma abordagem inovadora no Brasil. Dessa forma, as matrizes de nanofibras, produzidas pela técnica de electrospinning (ES), funcionam como suportes para a proliferação e diferenciação celular proporcionando uma alternativa para a reconstituição do tecido lesado. O processo de regeneração do tecido neural pode ser aperfeiçoado com a liberação controlada de fatores neurotróficos, através do uso dessas matrizes. Entre esses fatores, encontra-se o NGF (Nerve Growth Factor – fator de crescimento neural), o qual exerce um papel central no desenvolvimento, manutenção e sobrevivência dos neurônios. Além disso, características de superfície das matrizes, como o alinhamento de nanofibras, podem estimular a diferencição neural. O objetivo principal deste trabalho foi desenvolver matrizes de nanofibras alinhadas e não alinhadas com e sem o NGF incorporado, através da técnica ES de emulsão. Além disso, objetivou-se avaliar o comportamento celular, bem como a capacidade de diferenciação neural das CTMs, sobre as estruturas tridimensionais desenvolvidas. As CTMs foram extraídas da polpa de dentes decíduos esfoliados humanos. Quatro grupos de scaffolds foram desenvolvidos, caracterizados e avaliados: scaffolds com fibras randomizadas e com fibras alinhadas, sendo cada tipo com e sem o NGF incorporado. As análises físico-químicas realizadas foram morfologia, diâmetro das fibras e degradabilidade do biomaterial. Os parâmetros biológicos avaliados foram morfologia, adesão, viabilidade e proliferação celular, bem como a citotoxicidade frente ao biomaterial. A diferenciação neural foi quantificada através da expressão dos genes neurais nestina, β- III tubulina e NSE (enolase específica para neurônios). As matrizes de nanofibras produzidas mostraram-se satisfatórias para o cultivo de CTMs, mimetizando a estrutura física da matriz extracelular (MEC). Além disso, a técnica utilizada permitiu a obtenção de estruturas com nanofibras alinhadas e randomizadas. As CTMs cultivadas nas matrizes foram capazes de aderir e proliferar com vantagens para adesão nas matrizes alinhadas contendo o NGF, em relação às matrizes alinhadas controle. As estruturas produzidas não apresentaram características tóxicas permitindo que as CTMs mantivessem a viabilidade ao longo do tempo. A avaliação da diferenciação neural das CTMs indicou que todos os grupos de matrizes foram capazes de promover o aumento da expressão de genes neurais. Tal capacidade foi observada tanto para CTMs cultivadas sobre as matrizes com o meio controle quanto com o meio de indução neural. Esses achados mostram a possível influência das características químicas e topográficas providas pelos substratos produzidos. As características da matriz artificial permitem que as CTMs respondam adequadamente ao microambiente e expressem genes neurais, podendo auxiliar na regeneração tecidual quando aplicada em lesões do sistema nervoso. / The use of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) in regenerative medicine, particularly when associated with the nervous system, requires alternatives with respect to cell application methods. The association of cellular therapy with nanotechnology for use in neuroscience, developed with this work, is an innovative approach in Brazil. Scaffolds produced by electrospinning (ES) technique act as supports for cell proliferation and differentiation, providing an alternative to reconstitute the damaged tissue. The process of neural tissue regeneration can be improved through the controlled release of neurotrophic factors from the scaffolds. Among these factors, NGF (Nerve Growth Factor) plays a central role in the development, maintenance and survival of neurons. Furthermore, surface characteristics of nanofibers, such as alignment, can stimulate neural differentiation. The main objective of this study was to develop aligned nanofiber scaffolds and random nanofiber scaffolds with and without NGF incorporated through emulsion ES. In addition it was aimed to characterize the physico-chemical properties of the scaffolds, related to the extracellular matrix (ECM) and evaluate the cell behavior, as well as the neural differentiation on these three-dimensional devices. The MSCs were extracted from the dental pulp of human exfoliated deciduous teeth. Four groups of scaffolds were developed, characterized and evaluated: scaffolds with randomized fibers and with aligned fibers, each type with and without NGF incorporated. The physico-chemical analyzes performed were morphology, fiber diameter and degradability of the biomaterial. The biological parameters evaluated were cell morphology, adhesion, proliferation and viability, as well as cytotoxicity by the biomaterial. The neural differentiation was quantified by measuring gene expression for the neural genes nestin, β-III tubulin and NSE (neuron-specific enolase). The scaffolds produced demonstrated a satisfactory environment for MSC growth, mimicking the ECM physical structure. Furthermore, the technique allowed for the production of scaffolds with aligned and with randomized nanofibers. MSCs cultured on scaffolds were able to adhere and proliferate, with better adhesion performance on aligned nanofiber scaffolds with NGF incorporated, when compared to aligned nanofiber scaffolds control. The devices produced showed nontoxic characteristics permitting MSCs to maintain their viability over time. The evaluation of MSC neural differentiation indicated that all groups of scaffolds were able to upregulate neural genes expression. Such ability was observed for both MSCs cultured on scaffolds with control medium as on scaffolds under neural induction medium. These features provided by this artificial ECM permit proper MSC response to microenvironment, leading to neuronal genes expression, which could improve tissue regeneration when applied to nerve lesions.