Les cellules de la crête neurale migrent extensivement et forment le système nerveux autonome comprenant les ganglions parasympathiques, sympathiques et entériques, qui maintiennent l'homéostasie. Dans cette étude, j'explore les migrations, interactions neuronales et dépendances moléculaires lors de la formation des circuits nerveux autonomes. Je démontre que les précurseurs des ganglions parasympathiques dérivent des précurseurs des cellules de Schwann (SCPs) qui envahissent les nerfs préganglionaires jusqu'à leur destination, proche des organes cibles (Espinosa-Medina et al., 2014). D'autre part, je montre un parallélisme entre le mécanisme de migration des précurseurs parasympathiques et celui d'une population de précurseurs du système nerveux ¿sophagien, qui migrent le long le nerve vague. Enfin, je propose un réexamen du système nerveux sacré, qui régule les fonctions urinaire, digestive et reproductrice et qui est considéré comme parasympathique depuis plus d'un siècle, sans argument moléculaire. Je présente une signature moléculaire pour distinguer les neurones parasympathiques crâniens et les neurones sympathiques thoraco-lombaires et démontre que le système nerveux sacré est en fait sympathique. En conséquence, le système nerveux autonome est composé de trois divisions contrastées par leur origine embryonnaire aussi que leur anatomie adulte: une parasympathique d'origine et de connectivité exclusivement crânienne, une sympathique spinale, allant de l'étage cervical au sacré (Espinosa-Medina et al., 2016) et une division entérique que son origine aussi bien que sa connectivité placent à l'interface des systèmes sympathique et parasympathique. / Neural crest cells migrate extensively to form the autonomic nervous system including sympathetic, parasympathetic and enteric ganglia essential for regulating bodily homeostasis. In the present work, I explore the migratory mechanisms and neuronal interactions during autonomic circuit assembly, as well as their molecular dependencies. I show that parasympathetic ganglia derive from Schwann cell precursors (SCPs) and migrate along their preganglionic nerves to locate close to their target tissues (Espinosa-Medina et al., 2014). In line with this work, I show that vagal-associated SCPs give rise to part of the oesophageal nervous system, whereas cervical sympathetic-like crest cells colonize all the gastrointestinal tract, demonstrating a dual origin and different migration mechanisms for enteric neurons. Finally, I revise the identity of the sacral autonomic outflow, whose allocation to the parasympathetic nervous system has been accepted for a century. Sacral autonomic neurons control rectal, bladder, and genital functions and analysis of their cellular phenotype was lacking. Here I present a differential molecular signature for cranial parasympathetic versus thoraco-lumbar sympathetic neurons and show that, in this light, the sacral autonomic outflow is sympathetic. Accordingly, the parasympathetic nervous system receives input from cranial nerves exclusively and the sympathetic nervous system from spinal nerves, thoracic to sacral inclusively (Espinosa-Medina et al., 2016). Interestingly the enteric nervous system, which receives input from both sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves, shares with each system aspects of its ontogeny.

Les protéines Vestigial-like constituent une famille de cofacteurs de transcription contenant un domaine très conservé, appelé Tondu, qui permet l’interaction avec les facteurs de transcription de la famille TEAD. L’état de l’art des connaissances actuelles sur cette famille, en termes de répertoire, de structure et de fonction des gènes dans les différents groupes d’animaux, a fait l’objet d’une revue. Durant la thèse, a été étudiée la fonction de deux gènes vestigial, vestigial-like 3 et vestigial-like 4, dans le modèle amphibien xénope. Ce choix découle d’une part, des travaux antérieurs de notre laboratoire qui a caractérisé la famille des gènes vestigial chez le xénope et d’autre part des avantages de ce modèle expérimental qui permet les analyses cellulaires et moléculaires. Les approches de gain et perte de fonction indiquent que vestigial-like 3 est plus particulièrement impliqué dans la migration des cellules de la crête neurale. Vestigial-like 4 a un rôle dans la neurogenèse précoce et la formation de la crête neurale. / Vestigial-like proteins belong to a transcription co factors family with a conserved domain, called tondu, which allows their interaction with TEAD family transcription factors. The state of the art on the current knowledge about this family in terms of gene repertory, structure and functions in different animals has given rise to a review. PhD work has focused on vestigial-like 3 and vestigial-like 4 genes functions in the Xenopus amphibian. This choice stemmed from the laboratory previous works that has described vestigial like gene family in Xenopus, and from the Xenopus model advantages that allows cellular and molecular analysis. Gain and loss of function approaches indicate that vestigial-like 3 is especially implicated in neural crest cells migration. Vestigial-like 4 plays a role in early neurogenesis and neural crest formation.

The vertebrate nervous system is extremely complex and contains a wide diversity of cell types. The formation of a functional nervous system requires the differential specification of progenitor cells at the right time and place. The generation of many different types of neurons along the rostro-caudal axis of the CNS begins with the initial specification of a few progenitor domains. This initial coarse pattern is refined by so-called secondary organizers arising at boundaries between these domains. The Isthmic Organizer (IsO) is a secondary organizer located at the boundary between the midbrain and the hindbrain. Although the function and maintenance of the IsO are well understood, the processes underlying its initial specification have remained elusive. In the present work we provide evidence that convergent Wnt and FGF signals initiate the specification of the IsO during late gastrulation as part of the neural caudalization process. The initial step in the generation of the nervous system is the division of the embryonic ectoderm into three cell populations: neural cells giving rise to the CNS, neural plate border cells giving rise to the peripheral nervous system, and epidermal cells giving rise to the outer layer of the skin. While the choice between neural and epidermal fate has been well studied, the mechanism by which neural plate border cells are generated is less well understood. At rostral levels of the neuraxis, the neural plate border gives rise to the olfactory and lens placodes, thickenings of the surface ectoderm from which sensory organs are derived. More caudally, the neural plate border generates neural crest cells, a transient population that migrates extensively and contributes to neurons and glia of the peripheral nervous system. How the early patterning of the central and peripheral nervous systems are coordinated has remained poorly understood. Here we show that the generation of neural plate border cells is initiated at the late blastula stage and involves two phases. During the first phase, neural plate border cells are exposed to Wnt signals in the absence of BMP signals. Simultaneous exposure to Wnt and BMP signals at this early stage leads to epidermal induction. Wnt signals induce expression of Bmp4, thereby regulating the sequential exposure of cells to Wnt and BMP signals. During the second phase, at the late gastrula stage, BMP signals play an instructive role to specify neural plate border cells of either placodal or neural crest character depending on the status of Wnt signaling. At this stage, Wnt signals promote caudal character simultaneously in the neural plate border and in the neural ectoderm. Thus, the choice between epidermal and neural plate border specification is mediated by an interplay of Wnt and BMP signals that represents a novel mechanism involving temporal control of BMP activity by Wnt signals. Moreover, the early development of the central and peripheral nervous systems are coordinated by simultaneous caudalization by Wnt signals.

<p>The two major contributing populations to the outflow tract of the heart are the secondary heart field and the cardiac neural crest. These two populations are responsible for providing the myocardium that supports the outflow tract valves, the smooth muscle that surrounds these valves and the outflow vessels themselves, and the septum that divides the primitive, single outflow tract into an aorta and pulmonary trunk. Because the morphogenesis of this region is so complex, its development is regulated by many different signaling pathways. One of these pathways is the Sonic hedgehog pathway. This thesis tests the hypothesis that Sonic hedgehog induces secondary heart field proliferation, which is necessary for normal outflow tract development. To address this hypothesis, I took advantage of small chemical antagonists and agonists to determine how too little or too much hedgehog signaling would affect the secondary heart field, both in in vitro explants and in vivo. I have determined that Sonic hedgehog signaling maintains proliferation in a subset of secondary heart field cells. This proliferation is essential for generating enough myocardium and smooth muscle and also for the cardiac neural crest to septate the outflow tract into two equal-sized vessels. Up-regulating hedgehog signaling induces proliferation, which is quickly down-regulated, showing that the embryo exhibits a great deal of plasticity. Together, these studies have shown that Sonic hedgehog promotes proliferation in a subset of the secondary heart field and that the level of proliferation must be tightly regulated in order to form a normal outflow tract.</p> / Dissertation

Τα κύτταρα της νευρικής ακρολοφίας είναι ένας πολυδύναμος πληθυσμός βλαστικών κυττάρων που δημιουργείται στη ραχιαία πλευρά του νευρικού σωλήνα των σπονδυλωτών κατά τη διάρκεια της νευριδίωσης. Μετά τη δημιουργία τους, τα κύτταρα της νευρικής ακρολοφίας μεταναστεύουν σε ολόκληρο το έμβρυο, ακολουθώντας συγκεκριμένα μονοπάτια, συνεισφέροντας στη δημιουργία μιας μεγάλης ποικιλίας δομών, όπως νευρικά και γλοιακά κύτταρα του περιφερικού νευρικού συστήματος (ΠΝΣ), μελανοκύττρα, δομές που συμβάλλουν στο σκελετό του κρανίου και του προσώπου κλπ. Η δημιουργία, η αυτο- ανανέωση και η διαφοροποίηση των κυττάρων της νευρικής ακρολοφίας απαιτούν το συντονισμό των διεργασιών του κυτταρικού πολλαπλασιασμού και της κυτταρικής διαφοροποίησης. Η αδυναμία συντονισμού των παραπάνω διαδικασιών οδηγεί στην εμφάνιση ασθενειών στον άνθρωπο (neurocristopathies). Η Geminin είναι ένα μόριο που έχει την ικανότητα να ρυθμίζει την πρόοδο του κυτταρικού κύκλου, αλληλεπιδρώντας με τον παράγοντα αδειοδότησης της αντιγραφής Cdt1, και τη διαφοροποίηση, μέσω της αλληλεπίδρασής της με μεταγραφικούς παράγοντες και πρωτεΐνες αναδιαμόρφωσης της χρωματίνης. Προηγούμενες μελέτες του εργαστηρίου μας έχουν αναδείξει τη Geminin ως ένα σημαντικό ρυθμιστή των διαδικασιών της αυτο- ανανέωσης και διαφοροποίησης στα πρόδρομα νευρικά κύτταρα στον αναπτυσσόμενο φλοιό. Προκειμένου να κατανοήσουμε τους μηχανισμούς που ελέγχουν την αυτο-ανανέωση και τη διαφοροποίηση των πολυδύναμων κυττάρων της νευρικής ακρολοφίας και να κατανοήσουμε το μοριακό μηχανισμό ασθενειών στον άνθρωπο που σχετίζονται με την απορρύθμιση του ελέγχου της ι κανότητας αυτο-ανανέωσης και διαφοροποίησης των πολυδύναμων κυττάρων της νευρικής ακρολοφίας μελετήσαμε το ρόλο της Geminin στη δημιουργία, την αυτο-ανανέωση, τον καθορισμό και τη διαφοροποίηση των κυττάρων της νευρικής ακρολοφίας. Προς αυτή την κατεύθυνση πραγματοποιήθηκαν τόσο in vivo όσο και in vitro πειράματα, χρησιμοποιώντας ζωικά μοντέλα τα οποία δημιουργήθηκαν από το εργαστήριο μας και στα οποία το γονίδιο της Geminin είχε αδρανοποιηθεί ειδικά στα κύτταρα της νευρικής ακρολοφίας. Τα αποτελέσματά μας έδειξαν ότι η απουσία της Geminin οδηγεί στη δημιουργία εμβρύων με σοβαρές μορφολογικές αλλοιώσεις, που κατά τα πρώιμα αναπτυξιακά στάδια χαρακτηρίζονται από την απουσία της δομής του μεσεγκεφάλου και των βραγχιακών τόξων και σε μεταγενέστερα αναπτυξιακά στάδια εμφανίζουν σοβαρή κρανιοπροσωπική δυσμορφία, με κατάληξη το θάνατο των εμβρύων, λίγες ημέρες πριν γεννηθούν. Επιπλέον, κατά τα πρώιμα αναπτυξιακά στάδια παρατηρήθηκαν σοβαρές αλλοιώσεις σε δομές που προέρχονται από τη νευρική ακρολοφία, όπως είναι τα κρανιακά και τα ραχιαία γάγγλια, οι γναθικές προεκβολές και τα πρόδρομα κύτταρα του εντερικού νευρικού συστήματος. Η μείωση του πληθυσμού των πρόδρομων κυττάρων του εντερικού νευρικού συστήματος (ΕΝΣ) οδήγησε στη δημιουργία ενός αγαγγλιονικού εντέρου, το οποίο παρομοιάζει με το φαινότυπο του ΕΝΣ στη νόσο Hirschsprung στον άνθρωπο. Η ιστοειδική αδρανοποίηση της Geminin οδήγησε στη μείωση των αδιαφοροποίητων κυττάρων νευρικής ακρολοφίας που δημιουργούνται στην αυχενική περιοχή του νευρικού σωλήνα και στην είσοδο μικρότερου αριθμού κυττάρων νευρικής ακρολοφίας στον γαστρεντερικό σωλήνα κατά τα πρώτα στάδια του αποικισμού του. Μελέτη των εντερικών κυττάρων νευρικής ακρολοφίας έδειξε ότι η αποσιώπηση της Geminin προκάλεσε την αύξηση της απόπτωσης κατά τις ηλικίες Ε9.5 και Ε10.5 και τη μείωση του κυτταρικού πολλαπλασιασμού τους κατά την ηλικία Ε9.5. Σε συνδυασμό με τη μειωμένη ικανότητα που δείχνουν τα πρόδρομα εντερικά κύτταρα να αυτο-ανανεώνονται, τα αποτελέσματά μας προτείνουν ότι η Geminin έχει σημαντικό ρόλο στην αυτο-ανανέωση και την επιβίωση των πρόδρομων κυττάρων του ΕΝΣ. Επιπλέον, η απουσία της Geminin οδηγεί στη μείωση των κυττάρων που έχουν καθορισμένη μοίρα και εκφράζουν τους δείκτες των πρόδρομων εντερικών κυττάρων Phox2b, Ret και Mash1, ενώ τα κύτταρα αυτά απουσία της Geminin παρουσιάζουν μειωμένη παραγωγή νευρικών κυττάρων, κατά την έναρξη της νευρωνικής διαφοροποίησης. Συμπερασματικά, τα αποτελέσματά μας αναδεικνύουν τη Geminin ως ένα σημαντικό μόριο κατά τη δημιουργία των πολυδύναμων κυττάρων της νευρικής ακρολοφίας. Επίσης η Geminin είναι απαραίτητη για τη δημιουργία των κυττάρων της νευρικής ακρολοφίας που αποικίζουν το γαστρεντερικό σωλήνα, ενώ ρυθμίζει την επιβίωση και την αυτο-ανανέωσή τους, καθώς και τη μετάβασή τους από την αρχικά αδιαφοροποίητη/πολυδύναμη κατάσταση στην εντερική αναπτυξιακή μοίρα. Επιπλέον η απουσία της Geminin δημιουργεί μύες οι οποίοι μιμούνται τη νόσο του Hirschsprung και αποτελούν ένα σημαντικό ζωικό μοντέλο για τη μελέτη των μηχανισμών της μοριακή παθογένειας της νόσου αλλά και στην εύρεση νέων θεραπειών. / The neural crest is a multipotent cell population that is formed at the dorsal neural tube of vertebrate embryos during neurulation. After their formation, neural crest cells (NCCs) delaminate from the neural tube and migrate throughout the embryo following specific pathways, and give rise to a wide variety of structures, such as neural and glial cells of the peripheral nervous system (PNS), melanocytes, structures of the craniofacial skeleton, etc. Neural crest formation, self-renewal and differentiation require the coordination of proliferation and differentiation. Deregulation of these processes results in developmental diseases in humans, known as neurocristopathies. Geminin is a molecule that has the ability to regulate cell cycle progression and differentiation, through interactions with the licensing factor Cdt1, transcription factors and chromatin remodeling factors. Previous studies from our laboratory have shown that Geminin is an important regulator of self-renewal and differentiation of early cortical progenitors. In order to understand the mechanisms that control self-renewal and differentiation of multipotent neural crest cells (NCCs) and gain insight into the molecular mechanism of human diseases, we studied the role of Geminin in the formation, self-renewal and differentiation of NCCs. Towards this direction, we performed in vivo and in vitro experiments, using animal models that have been generated in our laboratory and allow the conditional inactivation of Geminin in neural crest cells. Our results showed that deletion of Geminin causes severe morphological malformations in embryos that are characterized by the absence of midbrain, branchial arches and severe craniofacial malformation. Mutant embryos are dying a few days before birth. Moreover, during early embryonic development, the neural crest-derived structures, such as cranial and dorsal root ganglia, the maxillary and the mandibular components, and enteric progenitor cells, were severely affected. The decrease of enteric neural crest cells resulted in the formation of aganglionic gut that resembles with the phenotype of Hirschsprung disease. The conditional inactivation of Geminin resulted in the decreased formation of naïve vagal neural crest cells, while enteric neural crest cells were dramatically reduced. Geminin deficient enteric neural crest sells show increased apoptosis at E9.5 and E10.5, and decreased cell proliferation at E9.5. These findings, combined with the decreased self-renewal capacity of enteric progenitor cells (EPCs) in vitro, suggest that Geminin is important for the self-renewal and the survival of ENS progenitor cells. In addition, deletion of Geminin resulted in decreased committed enteric neural crest cells, that express enteric progenitor markers Phox2b, Ret and Mash1. In conclusion, our results highlight Geminin as an important molecule during the formation of multipotent neural crest cells. Geminin is required for the formation of vagal neural crest cells that colonize the gastrointestinal tract, and regulates survival and selfrenewal of these cells, as well as their transition from a multipotent state to the committed enteric lineage of progenitor cells. Moreover, conditional inactivation of Geminin leads to Hirschsprung-like phenotype that could be used as model organisms to study disease pathogenesis and help in the discovery of new therapies.

No description available.

The neural crest (NC) derives from the dorsal borders of the vertebrate neural tube. During development, the NC cells migrate and contribute to the formation of different tissues and organs. Along the anteroposterior axis, the NC gives rise to neurons and glia of the peripheral nervous system and to melanocytes. Furthermore, the cephalic NC yields mesenchymal tissues, which form all facial cartilages and bones, the large part of skull, facial dermis, fat cells and smooth muscle cells in the head. In the trunk of amniotes Vertebrates, these tissues are derived from the mesoderm, not from the NC. In lower Vertebrates, however, the trunk NC generates some mesenchymal tissues, such as in the dorsal fins of zebrafish. The question therefore is raised whether the ability of the NC to produce mesenchymal cells was totally lost in the trunk of amniote Vertebrates during evolution, or if it can still be achieved under specific conditions. This work is interested in uncovering the mesenchymal potential of the avian trunk NC, with special interest in the differentiation into osteoblasts and adipocytes.Our experimental approach was to examine the skeletogenic and adipogenic differentiation potentials of quail trunk NC cells after in vitro culture. Cell differentiation was evidenced by the analysis of lineage-specific genes and markers using in situ hybridization (ISH), immunocytochemistry and RT-PCR. The established culture conditions allowed observation of both skeletogenesis and adipogenesis. Osteogenesis was initially characterized by expression of Runx2, the first transcription factor specific of the osteoprogenitors, which was detected by ISH from 5 days of culture. Later, we observed osteoblast maturation, with the expression of collagen1 protein, osteopontin mRNA and alkaline phosphatase mRNA, until the bone matrix mineralization stage. The trunk NC cells also underwent chondrogenesis, as demonstrated by Sox9, aggrecan and collagen10 mRNA expression, and Alcian blue staining. The observation of the mineralized areas and chondrogenesis suggested that the trunk NC cells in vitro are able to perform endochondral and membranous ossifications. In same culture conditions, the cells differentiated also into adipocytes, identified from 10 days of culture by Oil Red O staining. The mRNAs of the CEBP, PPAR and FABP4 adipogenic markers were detected by RT-PCR from 3 days of culture. For the characterization of bone and adipocyte progenitors, we evaluated the differentiation potential of individual trunk NC cells. The phenotypic analysis of these clonal cultures showed that 76% of the cells generated Runx2-positive osteoblasts. Moreover, most of the clone-forming trunk NC cells were multipotent progenitors endowed with both neural and osteogenic potentials. Furthermore, in another clonal culture condition, adipocytes were found in 35.3% of the clones, and approximately half of them also contained glial and/or melanogenic cells.These results show that the trunk NC cells in vitro are able to differentiate not only in their classical derivatives found in vivo (melanocytes, neurons and glial cells), but also in mesenchymal phenotypes, including adipocytes and osteoblasts. Importantly, as in cephalic NC cells, mesenchymal phenotypes differentiated from multipotent progenitor cells, suggesting that, during evolution, the NC stem cells intended for both mesenchymal and neural fates, had the expression of their mesenchymal potential inhibited in the trunk. Thus, although at the dormant state and not expressed in vivo, a significant mesenchymal potential is present in the trunk NC cells of amniotes Vertebrates and can be disclosed in vitro

Patients with type-1 diabetes lose their β-cells after autoimmune attack. Islet transplantation is a co-option for curing this disease, but survival of transplanted islets is poor. Thus, methods to enhance β-cell viability and function as well as methods to expand β-cell mass are required. The work presented in this thesis aimed to study the roles of neural crest stem cells or their derivatives in supporting β-cell proliferation, function, and survival. In co-culture when mouse boundary cap neural crest stem cells (bNCSCs) and pancreatic islets were in direct contact, differentiating bNCSCs strongly induced β-cell proliferation, and these proliferating β-cells were glucose responsive in terms of insulin secretion. Moreover, co-culture of murine bNCSCs with β-cell lines RIN5AH and β-TC6 showed partial protection of β-cells against cytokine-induced β-cell death. Direct contacts between bNCSCs and β-cells increased β-cell viability, and led to cadherin and β-catenin accumulations at the bNCSC/β-cell junctions. We proposed that cadherin junctions supported signals which promoted β-cell survival. We further revealed that murine neural crest stem cells harvested from hair follicles were unable to induce β-cell proliferation, and did not form cadherin junctions when cultured with pancreatic islets. Finally, we discovered that the presence of bNCSCs in co-culture counteracted cytokine-mediated insulin-producing human EndoC-βH1 cell death. Furthermore, these two cell types formed N-cadherin, but not E-cadherin, junctions when they were in direct contact. In conclusion, the results of these studies illustrate how neural crest stem cells influence β-cell proliferation, function, and survival which may improve islet transplantation outcome.

Diss. (sammanfattning) Stockholm : Karolinska institutet, 2007. / Härtill 3 uppsatser.

Diss. (sammanfattning) Stockholm : Karolinska institutet, 2006. / Härtill 4 uppsatser.